Lesson 31 to 41

 

 

Note: We are going to climb as high as possible during this flight session, at least to 6000 ft, to show you a few particularities of flying at greater heights. Unfortunately, the weather conditions being what they are in our countries, we know that they are not always suitable for this sort of demonstration, at least not in VFR. Assuming that the flight must be postponed, the instructor will proceed with lessons 32, 33 and 34 regarding the theoretical aspects of navigation until acceptable conditions prevail.

 

A. - BRIEFING (01,00 h. - Total 27,30 h.)

 

 

a) Use of the mixture control

 

Review PILOT NOTE I in this concern. This flight training session will clearly reveal the absolute necessity of the mixture control when flying at higher altitude, particularly if the climb can be carried out unrestricted by clouds.

 

Let us emphasize once more the fact that some foreign airfields are located at considerable elevations, up to 6000 ft, 7000 ft MSL (above Mean Sea Level) or even higher. Taking off from such airfields with the mixture control in full RICH is definitely asking for problems. In this case, it is imperative to perform a full power test during the engine run-up and, while doing so, to lean the mixture until the maximum possible power is obtained: this adjusted setting is then to be maintained for the takeoff, as well as for a possible go-around. Although the mixture should normally not be leaned unless the engine power is 75% or less, it might be necessary to do so for takeoff: in this case, the engine temperatures (oil and CHT) should be closely monitored as long as the engine is operating at maximum available power. 

 

It has also been emphasized that the mixture should be leaned when the carburettor heating is used for a prolonged period of time, to avoid a too rich fuel/air ratio and a consequent needless waste of fuel. At greater heights, it may happen that selecting the carburettor heating to HOT causes the engine to falter because of the resulting over-rich mixture: again, additional leaning will clear the problem.

 

b) Consequences of the decreasing air density with altitude

 

Despite the use of the mixture control, the available power will be less at altitude than at sea level, for the very simple reason that the manifold air pressure (inlaatdruk/pression d’admission), the so-called MAP, decreases as a direct result of the lower density. It has been established that, at 8000 ft, the maximum available engine power has dropped to 75 % of the rated value,and rapidly decreases further with increasing altitude.

 

A first consequence of the decreased air density, in combination with the power loss, is that the takeoff distance becomes longer.

So does the landing distance although, in this case, the sole culprit is the decreased air density. Indeed, for one and the same takeoff or landing indicated airspeed, the true airspeed is higher (see below), hence longer takeoff and landing distances. It is therefore imperative to check the POH in this concern, taking into consideration the airport elevation and the prevailing air temperature and pressure in order to verify the actual density altitude: this should be done for all operations at airports located significantly higher than sea level (for instance St-Hubert, in Belgium) an PARTICULARLY IF THE PREVAILING AMBIENT AIR TEMPERATURE IS ABNORMALLY HIGH. IN WHICH LATTER CASE IT IS WORTHWHILE TO TAKE THE SAME PRECAUTION EVEN AT SEA LEVEL.

 

A second consequence is that, mainly because of the inevitable power loss with increasing altitude, the maximum possible rate of climb will gradually decrease until the moment that no more than 100 ft/min can be obtained: this is the so-called service ceiling of the aircraft. If the climb is continued any further, the rate of climb will finally reach a zero value, and only one airspeed will be possible in level flight, namely the minimum control speed below which the stall occurs. This is known as the absolute ceiling. Usually, only the service ceiling is mentioned in the POH, the absolute ceiling being of no practical use. But, once again, remember that the service ceiling depends on the prevailing density altitude.

 

b) Airspeed indicator (ASI)

 

Another consequence of the decreasing air density relates to the airspeed indicator. Recall that the ASI shows the difference between the dynamic air pressure measured by the pitot tube and the pressure measured at the static inlet. The instrument is calibrated according to the International Standard Atmosphere (ISA) prevailing at sea level. In other words, it is only at sea level that the ASI provides correct indications and, even so, provided that both the ambient air pressure and temperature are respectively 1013,2 mb and +15°C.

 

As the air density decreases with altitude, the ASI will gradually read less despite the fact that, precisely because of the decreasing density, the actual airspeed of the aircraft tends to increase. In other words, at altitude there is a significant difference between the indicated airspeed (lAS) and the actual airspeed at which the aircraft travels, the so-called true airspeed (TAS). And obviously, the higher the altitude, the greater will be the difference between lAS and TAS.

 

As is explained during the navigation groundcourse, the TAS can easily be calculated on the computer. Note however that some ASI's are so-called true airspeed indicators. This is nothing else but a normal indicator to which a calculating disk similar to a computer's has been added so that the needle shows both the lAS and the TAS. All which has to be done to obtain the TAS is to align the prevailing pressure altitude, i.e. the altimeter reading when it is set to 1013,2 mb, with the prevailing outside air temperature, or OAT (obviously, a true airspeed indicator implies the availability of an OAT indicator) .

The TAS is extremely important for navigation flights because its combination with the prevailing wind gives way to the so-called groundspeed (GSP) i.e. the actual speed at which the aircraft travels in relation to the ground surface. Let us stress this once more: it is the true airspeed which must be used to determine the groundspeed. NOT THE INDICATED AIRSPEED. Besides, it is the TAS which appears on the performance graphs and tables, the associated IAS resulting automatically from the correct power setting. And, in order to calculate the lAS at cruising altitude before departure, the computer is again necessary.

 

Note that the problem of the indicated airspeed is compounded by another phenomenon the so-called position error of the ASI: indeed, the ASI is the only instrument which is related to both the pitot tube and the static air inlet. The position of the pitot tube varies with the angle of attack, which is a first source of error. Furthermore, despite the fact that its location is very carefully determined by the manufacturer, the pitot tube is still subjected to unusual eddies produced by the airflow around the aircraft's structure when the flaps are extended, i.e. a second source of error. These discrepancies are tracked down and published in the POH in the form of airspeed calibration graphs or tables. Although these errors are usually rather small, the so-called calibrated airspeed (CAS) or, to use the British terminology the rectified airspeed (RAS) defined as the indicated airspeed corrected for position and instrumental errors, is more accurate. In other words, the CAS or RAS can-be derived from the published TAS by means of the computer, whereas the corresponding IAS must be determined by means of the airspeed calibration information in the POH. .

 

Incidentally, many aircraft are equipped with an alternate static system allowing the pressure instruments, i. e. the altimeter ,"the ASL and the VSI, to be supplied by static air from the cabin if the normal static inlet happens to become blocked for some reason, an occurrence which would lead to clearly erroneous readings. The alternate system is controlled by a switch which, once selected to the "alternate" position, is likely to affect the accuracy of the involved instruments, and particularly the indications of the ASI. Assuming that such a system is available, the POH usually includes an additional calibration table or graph. Note that, if no alternate static system is fitted, a failed static inlet can be compensated by breaking the glass of anyone of the pleasure instruments.

 

- Indicated airspeed versus rate of climb

 

In lesson 08, we mentioned the associated best rate of climb speed, or Vy. Some POH’s publish only one single value for Vy: this is for example the case for the Piper PA-28-61, with 79 KIAS. Others, such as the Cessna 152L mention a number of Vy's in KlAS, decreasing with altitude, and with the associated maximum possible rate of climb. And indeed assuming that the same IAS as at sea level would be maintained throughout the climb, due to the increasing ASI density error, the TAS would of course rapidly increase, but at the expense of the climb rate. This implies that, in order to maintain the maximum possible rate of climb at all altitudes, the IAS should be gradually reduced. As a rule of the thumb, it can be stated that during climb, for every additional 1000 ft the IAS should be reduced by about one knot.

 

- Indicated airspeed versus stall speed

 

Let us come back to the basic lift formula mentioned in lesson 03:

 

Fz = ½ ρ  S  V  Cz   (1)

 

As Fz equals the aircraft’s weight G, this formula can be re-written as follows:

 

G = ½ ρ  S  V²  Cz   (2)

 

The following formula can be derived from (2):

 

                          G

V =        √    ------------       (3)

                   ½ ρ  S  Cz

 

Consequently, the minimum speed Vmin, i.e. the stall speed, can be expressed as follows:

 

                              G

Vmin:        √    ---------------        (4)

                     ½ ρ  S  Cz max

 

This latter formula shows that the stall speed, besides being affected by the factors mentioned in lesson 10, is also affected by the air density (1/2 ρ). Indeed, assuming a lesser density, less lift can be produced, consequently the angle of attack must be greater for a given weight, and the critical value will be reached sooner. This is all absolutely correct... as far as we consider the true airspeed. However, the indicated airspeed remains unchanged! Indeed let us consider an aircraft stalling at 50 KlAS at sea level: it will stall at exactly the same indicated airspeed at 5000 ft, at l0 000 ft, or whatever other altitude. The reason for this is that the airspeed indicator's capsule, whose "deformations” control the pointer, is also submitted to density variations which equally affect both the dynamic and static pressures: however the difference between these pressures, and thus the resulting INDICATED airspeed remains the same, Incidentally, this is also the reason why the reading of the ASI provides the pilot with a fairly good information about the value of the angle of attack.

 

d) Altimeter

Till now you probably always operated the aircraft with the altimeter set on the QNH (or perhaps, in some cases, on the QFE ). Recall that the local QNH is obtained either by radio via the ATC, or via the local meteorological station. In the absence of these services, the local QNH can be obtained before initiating the takeoff roll, by adjusting the altimeter to the (published) elevation of the runway threshold, and reading the associated value in the barometric window (note that the only spots on the airport where the correct elevation is published are the runway thresholds and the airport reference point, anywhere else is likely to induce (very small) error). A similar method may be used for the QFE but, in this case, by adjusting the altimeter at zero feet. Note that in most countries, the use of the QFE is nowadays completely obsolete so that, at present, the QNH is generally used.

We know however that the value of the QNH varies with time, as well as with location. In other words, several aircraft which departed different airports and filling at the same indicated altitude can, in fact, be at various elevations above sea level, depending on the altimeter setting at departure. Therefore, an average value, the so-called regional ONR can be provided by the FIC (Flight Informatiom Center) in order to standardize somewhat the altimeter settings, but this implies the use of R/T which is not a requirement in non-controlled areas. Note that in controlled areas, the ATC provides the prevailing QNR in each specific area and which must be used by all aircraft operating within it.

 

In order to obtain more uniformity at greater heights, in controlled (and non-controlled areas above 3000 ft AGL),the use of pressure altitude and associated flight levels has been introduced. We know that the pressure altitude is the height shown by the altimeter when it is set at 1013,2 mb (or 29,92 inches) , i.e. at the standard pressure at sea level. This barometric metric setting is compulsory for all operations above the so-called transition altitude, which is determined by law ; in the Belgian FIR, a common transition altitude of 4500 ft QNH prevails (except, as said, in non-controlled areas). All aircraft flying above the legal transition altitude are to use the 1013,2 mb altimeter setting: the associated elevation is expressed in levels. For instance, assuming that the altimeter reads 4300 it is expressed as "level 43 II (in R/T phraselology: “level four three”), 7600 as level 76, 10700 as level 107, etc.

 

Note that not all levels may be used for cruising: only those whose last three digits are 500 or 000 may be taken into consideration for level cruising flight, and these are no longer referred to as levels, but as flight levels. In other words, above the transition altitude and with the altimeter set at 1013,2 mb, we have for example:

 

- 5000 is FL 50 (flight level five zero)

- 5300 is L 53 (level five three)

- 5500 is FL 5S (flight level five five)

etc.

- 10000 is FL 100 (flight level one zero zero)

- 10500 is FL 105 (flight level one zero five)

- 10800 is L 108 (level one zero eight)

- 11000 is FL 110 (flight level one one zero)

etc.

 

Only flight levels ending by 500 are normally to be used for VFR navigation flights in non-controlled airspace above 3000 ft AGL. Considering controlled airspace, whereas during climb the altimeter should be reset from QNH to 1013,3 mb upon passing through the transition altitude, during descent from a flight level it should be reset to the prevailing QNH upon the passage of the so ­called transition level. The transition level is located above the transition altitude but its value is not fixed as is the case for the transition altitude: it depends from the prevailing QNH, the space between the transition altitude and the transition level being referred to as the transition layer, which normally has a minimum thickness of 1000 feet. Considering the transition altitude of 4500 ft QNH:

 

1°) If the QNH is 980 mb:

 

Upon passing 4500 ft QNH, the altimeter is reset to 1013,2 mb. The difference between 1013,2 (1013 for practical purposes) and 980 mb is 33 mb. As the barometric setting is increased by 33 mb, this causes the altimeter to read 4500 + (33 x 30) = 5490 ft (at the rate of 1 mb/30 ft).

 

The transition level should be 65, thus providing for a transition layer of 6500 - 5490 = 1010 ft.

 

2°) If the QNH is 1040 mb:

 

Upon passing 4500 ft QNH, the altimeter is reset to 1013 mb. The difference between 1040 mb and 1013 mb is 27 mb. As the barometric setting is decreased by 27 mb, this causes the altimeter to read 4500 - (27 x 30) = 3690 ft.

 

The transition level should be 50, providing for a transition layer of 5000 - 3690 = 1310 ft.

 

3°) If the QNH is 1013.2 mb:

 

Upon passing 4500 ft QNH, no altimeter reset is required, but considering that the transition layer must have a thickness of at least 1000 ft, the transition level should be 55.

Note that the value of the transition level is provided to the pilot either directly by R/T on the current frequency, or via the so-called ATIS, or AUTOMATIC TERMINAL INFORMATION SERVICE. More about this in lesson 33.

 

The terms "altitude", "height" and "level" can all be used to express an elevation. However, for aviation purposes, there is a definite difference between these terminologies:

 

1°) "level" or "flight level", as we just explained, is the elevation of the aircraft flying above the transition altitude, and read on the altimeter when it is set to 1013,2 mb;

 

2°) "altitude" is the elevation of the aircraft above the sea level, and read on the altimeter when it is set to the QNH;

3°) "height” is the elevation of the aircraft above the ground surface, and read on the altimeter when it is set to the QFE. But again, the QFE is nowadays in disuse and, for navigation flights, depending on the chosen cruising elevation, the altimeter MUST be set to either the QNH or 1013,2 mb, this latter setting being sometimes referred to as the ONE.

 

e) Physiological effects of altitude

 

1°) Hypoxia

 

We know that the air is composed of a number of gases amongst which oxygen (zuurstof/oxygène). Oxygen is essential for the functioning of the human and other living bodies. At any elevation, each of these gases is present in a fixed percentage which, for the oxygen, is about 20%. This implies that, as one is climbing, because of the ever decreasing density, the so­called partial pressure of the oxygen will decrease. In other words, this amounts to a gradual but increasing shortage of an element which if fundamental for life.

 

It is generally accepted that up to 12500 ft (±3800 m), the lack of oxygen is too little to seriously affect an individual in normal health condition: still, it appears that a stay of about four hours at 8000 ft (2500 m) can already cause headaches, abnormal tiredness, and impair the faculty for sound judgment to a rather significant extend. Obviously, when climbing higher, and especially once above 12500 feet, the aforementioned phenomena are likely to occur after a much shorter period of time and to become much more acute. It has been established that, at an altitude of 14000 ft (4300 m), a state of euphoria may rapidly develop whereby the affected individual is no longer very well aware of what he is doing and tends show the same symptoms as if intoxicated. All these physiological disturbances, from the mildest to which the body adapts fairly rapidly without any noticeable effects, to the most acute, are the result of a lack of oxygen in the brain system, and fall under the common denominator of hypoxia.

 

The extreme form of hypoxia is likely to occur somewhere between 14000 and 20000 ft: the shortage of oxygen is such that the individual might loose consciousness and, if this situation is not immediately corrected, death is likely to occur. Incidentally, note that the so-called anoxia is the situation whereby no oxygen at all is available to the organism.

 

In the Belgian commercial aviation, pilots are required to use supplemental oxygen when the altitude exceeds 10000 ft, unless the aircraft is pressurized, which is never the case for an elementary trainer. In the United States, the FAA, i.e. the Federal Aviation Agency has laid down interesting and clearly defined rules for the use of supplemental oxygen (masks supplied by an additional oxygen container) . These rules are valid for all aircraft, whether in commercial or general aviation, which are not fitted with a pressurization system, or when this system would become inoperative. These rules are as follows:

 

- Up to 12500 ft, the use of supplemental oxygen is not required (again, the belgian regulations concerning commercial aircraft require, amongst other things, the use of oxygen for all flight crew members above 10000 ft);

 

- Above 12500 ft, up to and including 14000 ft, supplemental oxygen is required for the pilot and all flight crew members after a stay of 30 minutes at these altitudes, and for the complete remaining duration of the flight above 12500 ft;

 

- Above 14000 ft, supplemental oxygen is required for all flight crew members, for as long as the aircraft stays at these altitudes;

 

- Above 15000 ft, supplemental oxygen is required for all occupants.

 

2°) Effects of submarine diving

 

Besides hypoxia, of which you will probably not experience any noticeable consequences as long as you do not try to climb above 12500 ft without supplemental oxygen, there is another medical problem which is much more likely to cause very serious trouble, for pilots or passengers: aeroembolism, also known as decompression disease, and which may result in a fatal outcome.

 

Aeroembolism can happen to non-divers as well, but to these the possibilities for being subjected to this disease are practically nil, unless they would climb to altitudes of 23000 feet or more, most unlikely in an elementary trainer. However, for individuals practicing submarine diving, aeroembolism is likely to occur at already fairly low altitudes if flying is undertaken too shortly after diving. Indeed, during submarine diving, the body, and the various gases within it, can be submitted to an abnormal high pressure due to the weight of the water and, when coming back to the surface, the decreasing water pressure causes these gases, mainly nitrogen (stikstof/azote) to expand, in itself a minor problem, known as dysbarism, which might result in a slight discomfort at most. Such mild occurrences of dysbarism might be encountered by aircraft occupants during climb as well. However, when they go deep, the water pressure becomes very significant, and divers are all aware that they cannot come back to the surface without one or several pauses at various stages of their ascent. The reason for this is to allow the highly compressed internal gasses, which are normally dissolved in the tissues and the blood, to expand gradually: failing to pause at regular intervals would cause the gases, and particularly nitrogen which is always present in the blood, to expand too rapidly and to form bubbles. At best, these bubbles which, besides forming within the blood, tend to form as well in the tissues around the articulations and to give way to a painful feeling known as "bends" (the first sign of things going wrong). At worst, the bubbles in the blood might reach the heart, the brains, the spine, or any other major part of the organism and result in extremely severe consequences, including death. But, even assuming that the ascent was gradual, or that he went only to relatively little depth, no diver should travel by air shortly after having surfaced: indeed, even after having reached the surface with all possible precautions, the organism needs some time to re-adapt to sea level conditions (24 hours waiting time before flying seem a safe amount) .

 

 

B. - FLIGHT TRAINING (Dual 02,30 h. - Total 21,30 h.)(Solo 00,00 h. - Total 09,00 h.) (Total D+S 30,30 h.)

 

Before departure, ensure that you are in possession of a suitable aviation map.

 

During this flight, you will climb as high as the cloud formations permit but, without supplemental oxygen, not exceeding 12500 ft for an extended period of time.

 

The takeoff will be performed according to the short field technique (on long runways, with flaps up).

The climb will be carried out in steps, each time using the IAS recommended in the POH, levelling off basically at intervals of 3000 ft. During the climb, about half way of each 3000 ft step, note on a knee pad the actual altimeter reading you are passing, the OAT, the IAS and the associated rate of climb shown by the VSI. Do not forget to set the altimeter to 1013,2 mb upon passing the transition altitude.

 

At each 3000 ft step, a short period of level flight on a specified heading shall be performed, using ±65% power, and to which purpose you will need to refer to the POH. The mixture control should be adjusted each time to best economy for level flight, then re-adjusted to best power in view of the subsequent climb (possible recommendations in the POH are of course to be observed). Assuming the presence of an ad hoc indicator, also write down the prevailing OAT, the current lAS and the power settings (RPM, or MAP and RPM) for both best economy and best power cruise conditions.

 

Once this is done, perform each time a 1G stall with power idle and note the indicated stall speed. Do not forget to go through the complete safety procedure before each such exercise.

 

Once established at the highest reachable altitude, and after the last stall practice, maintain level flight, relax, admire the world from greater heights, and identify as much as possible landmarks which, from these higher altitudes, and particularly with good visibility, seem to be much closer of each other than they actually are (use your map). Finally, provide your instructor with the approximate heading to return to the airport.

 

The descent should then be initiated at ±500 ft/min by slightly lowering the nose: let the speed increase in the yellow range until close to Vne, then reducing power slightly to maintain this new speed. Slightly enrich the mixture during descent. Assuming that you hit some turbulence, reduce power significantly, possibly even to idle¡ to bring the airspeed back within the green range as quickly as possible, either while maintaining descent at ±500 ft/min (when reducing power, prevent the nose to drop by slight back pressure on the elevator) or, if necessary because of the strength of the turbulence, by levelling off momentarily until the airspeed is within limits.

 

This flight will be completed with a practice forced landing exercise, basically from about 6000 or 5000 ft AGL. Your instructor will make the necessary arrangements with the ATC if needed thence, at some distance from the airport¡ he will simulate an engine failure by bringing the throttle lever close to, but not at, idle: it will then be up to you to proceed to overhead the landing spots, go trough, or at least call out, the various checks, perform one, several, or no spiral descent, depending on the circumstances, in order to reach the key point from where the instructor will reduce power to full idle for landing between the spots.

 

Time permitting, a simulated balked landing will be carried out immediately before touchdown, followed by a normal circuit and a short field landing, again between spots.

Once back home, you should analyze the notes you took during the flight and calculate, for each phase in level flight, the TAS and the actual density altitude. Compare also the various actual VSI indications with those published in the POH.

 

Although the climb, the various cruise performances, the stalls and associated stall speeds are the basic purpose of this flight, it is obvious that the instructor might pepper this session with a number of additional exercises such as:

- picking up various headings either on the magnetic compass or on the D.G.;

 

- checking the current heading on the D.G., then covering both magnetic compass and D.G., and performing a 90° or 180° to the left then to the right by using external references: upon completion, the aircraft should be again established on the initial heading;

 

- use of VHF/DF if available;

 

- high performance turns left and right, etc.

 

 

 

C. - QUESTIONARY

 

 

01. - (POH) The elevation of the airport is 6000 ft above sea level. The QNH is 1000 mb and the temperature is +30°C. Calculate:

 

a) the density altitude of the airport;

b) the takeoff distance for your training aircraft assuming no wind, an upslope of 2%, (long) grass;

c) the landing distance for your training aircraft assuming no wind, a downslope of 2%, (long) grass.

 

02. - Considering question al, which precaution is required during the engine run-up prior to take off?

 

03. - The mixture should normally not be leaned as long as the engine runs at more than ____ % power. Considering ISA conditions and full power, this percentage is reached at about ____ ft.

 

04. - (POH) Considering question al, assuming Vy after liftoff, which rate of climb may you expect at maximum takeoff weight?

 

05. - What is the difference between service ceiling and absolute ceiling?

 

06. - (POH) State the service ceiling of your training aircraft.

 

07. - What are the terms TAS, lAS, CAS, RAS, ASI and GSP respectively standing for?

 

08. - Under which conditions is the TAS equal to the CAS or the RAS?

 

09. - Give the full definitions of lAS, CAS, RAS and TAS.

 

10. - What is a true airspeed indicator? How are you supposed to use this instrument?

 

11. - For navigation purposes, the groundspeed should be derived from: a) the lAS, b) the CAS or RAS, c) the TAS.

 

12. - (POH) Is your training aircraft fitted with an alternate static system ? What is its purpose? What if no such system is available?

 

13. - In order to maintain the highest rate of climb from sea level to the service ceiling, the Vy remains unchanged. True or false?

 

14. - For a specified aircraft weight, the indicated stall speed: a) increases with altitude, b) decreases with altitude, c) remains unchanged with altitude.

 

15. - For a specified aircraft weight, the true stall speed: a) increases with altitude, b) decreases with altitude, c) remains unchanged with altitude.

 

16. - The stall speed is independent of the air density. True or false?

 

17. - Give the definitions of transition altitude, transition level, transition layer.

 

18. - In Belgium, the transition altitude is established by law at ________ ft, except for the TMA of ________ and the CTR of ________ where it is ________ ft.

 

19. - What is the difference between a level and a flight level?

 

20. - The QNH in Brussels-National is 1000 mb. The transition altitude being 4500 ft QNH, which should be the transition level? State the thickness of the transition layer?

 

21. - The QNH in Brussels-National is 1013 mb. In this specific case, the transition level equals the transition altitude and the transition layer is not considered. True or false?

 

22. - What is the difference between height and altitude?

 

23. - ATIS stands for ______________________________________.

 

24. - A regional QNH is usually supplied by: a) the airport's local control service, b) the en route ATC, c) the FIC.

 

25. - What is the difference between hypoxia and anoxia?

 

26. - Flying without supplemental oxygen is considered as unsafe above ft. In Belgium, and for commercial operations, it is compulsory for flight crew members above ft.

 

27. - What do you understand by aeroembolism?

 

28. - Decompression disease must never be feared when flying light aircraft, as it can only appear at very high altitudes. True or false?

 

 

 

A.- BRIEFING (02,00 h. - Total 29,30 h.)

 

You are now beginning the last phase of the elementary flight training: navigation. It is assumed that, by now, you have completed the groundcourse related to the private pilot's licence, and that you successfully passed the associated official examination. In other words, it is assumed that you have already acquired a fair knowledge about the basic principles of navigation.

 

The national private pilot licence (pre-JAR/FCL) implies only the deduced reckoning navigation method (gegist bestek/navigation à l'estime), or DR. This means that the journey between departure and destination is mainly based on time and heading resulting from the forecasted enroute winds, the expected air density at the cruising altitude, the TAS produced by a specific power setting (usually 65%) and the resulting groundspeed, the CAS or RAS associated to the TAS, and the resulting lAS. Basically, only geographical landmarks are used once airborne. The use of navigation aids such as the ADF/NDB or the VOR will be covered during the advanced flight training.

 

To start with, let us emphasize that, because of the presence in Belgium, as well as in most other surrounding countries, of many prohibited, dangerous, or regulated areas, DR navigation requires VERY GOOD visibility conditions to avoid these places. Therefore, and although flying with 500 ft ceiling and 1,5 km visibility is legally allowed in non-controlled airspace, even in controlled zones under the denomination of special VFR, DR navigation under such circumstances is dangerous to say the least, and can even become life threatening. So forget it!

Futhermore, in countries such as Belgium, there are plenty of controlled areas and zones, for example the Brussels TMA, and a number of military CTR's which may not be entered, purposely or otherwise, without proper VHF bi-lateral communications and airborne transponder equipment. In fact, VHF and transponder are basic requirements nowadays, except for a few very short hops between two small non-controlled airfields. Refer to PILOT NOTE V: "THE VHF TRANSMITTER-RECEIVER" and PILOT NOTE VI: "RADAR AND TRANSPONDER".

 

Besides very good weather conditions (let us insist once more on this), DR navigation requires adequate topographical charts such as the "LOW AIR-BELGIUM" at scale 1/250000, or the ICAO "LOW COUNTRIES" at scale 1/500000. A scale of 1/250000 for example means that 1 cm on the chart represents 250000 cm on the Earth's surface, i.e. 2500 m or 2,5 km, and is better suited for slow moving aircraft. These charts are specifically designed for aeronautical purposes and feature all kind of valuable information for pilots such as the correct location of major airports and smaller airfields, TMA' s, CTR' s, regulated zones, obstacles, etc. You are probably in possession of such a chart since your very first flight lesson. Note however that the chart must be recent: check its date of edition.

 

As far as charts are concerned, let us first review some basic definitions (fig. 1):

 

1°) A great circle (grootcirkel/grand cercle) is any circle whose center is the Earth's midpoint. There is only one great circle lying at right angles to the Earth's rotation axis, i.e. the axis between the geographical North and South Poles: it is known as the equator (evenaar/équateur), which divides the Earth into to halves, the northern and southern hemispheres (noordelijk en zuidelijk halfrond/hémisphère nord et sud), each halve including 90° of latitude, i.e. 90° of latitude north and 90° of latitude south (noorder- en zuiderbreedte/latitude nord et sud), the zero degree being located at the equator.

 

2°) Any great circle which passes through both geographical Poles is divided into two halves, each one limited by the North and South Poles. Each halve is known as a meridian (meridiaan/méridien). The great circle passing through Greenwich (downtown London) also divides the Earth into two halves, the western and eastern hemispheres (westelijk en oostelijk halfrond/hémisphère ouest et est), each including 180° of longitude, i.e. 180° of longitude west and 180° of lonqitude east (wester- en oosterlengte/longitude ouest et est), the zero degree being the Greenwich meridian.

 

3°) A small circle (kleincirkel/petit cercle) is any circle whose center is not the Earth's midpoint. Any small circle lying at right angles to the Earth's rotation axis, i.e. parallel to the equator, is referred to as a parallel.

 

4°) Meridians and parallels form a grid allowing to determine the location of any point on Earth in terms of longitude and latitude (lengte en breedte/longitude et latitude), bath expressed in degrees, minutes and seconds, in relation to the equator for the latitude, or in relation to the Greenwich meridian for the longitude. For instance, the airport reference point of Antwerp/Deurne is located at 51°11'24" of latitude north of the equator and at 004027'42" of longitude east Greenwich.

 

Incidentally, note that 1 nautical mile corresponds to the length of 1 minute of a great circle.

 

Aeronautical charts, as any other geographic chart, are the representation of the Earth's surface, i.e. the representation of a spherical object, or part of it, on a flat sheet. This inevitably must lead to distortions, the importance of which depends partly of the size of the represented area, partly of the method, the so-called projection, used to represent the Earth's surface: a typical example of such distortions is provided by the Mercator system whereby Groenland is represented nearly as large as the whole of North-America.

 

The detailed study of the various projection methods is outside the scope of the present elementary course. Just to give you an idea of what it is all about, let us sum up the three major systems:

 

- The so-called azimuthal projections (azimuthale projecties/projections azimutales) I i.e. on a plane tangential to the Earth, either on, a Pole, on the Equator, or somewhere in between. The point from where the surface is projected on the plane can can be the Earth’s center, the so-called gnomonic projection (gnomonisch projectie/projection gnomonique) or it can be on the opposite side on the point of tanqency , becoming then the so-called stereographic projection (stereografische projectie/projection stéréographique) (fig. 2 and fig. 3).

 

- The conical projections (kegel projecties/projections coniques, i. e, on a cone which may be tangential to a parallel, or which may intersect the Earth at two different so-called standard parallels (fig. 4), as it is the case for the Lambert conical projection used for example for the ICAO "LOW COUNTRIES II chart and, for many “Jeppesen” charts.

 

- The cylindrical projections (cylinder projecties/projections cylindriques) (fig. 5), i.e. on a cylinder tangential to the Earth, either on the Poles, on the equator (this is the case for the Mercator World Chart), or somewhere in between, as it is the case for the Universal Transverse Mercator, or UTM chat, which is often used for relatively short distance navigation.

 

These three major projection methods, and their numerous variations, allow, in combination with quite some mathematical adiustments, to represent the Earth's parallels and meridians I and thus to represent the Earth’s geographical features in more or less accurate detail.

 

As said earlier, no char t can possibly be absolutely correct but providing that the represented area is not exceedingly large, some can be almost correct. This is the case for the aeronautical charts which you will use for present navigational purposes, and which are probably either the Lambert conical or the UTM projections. These are almost:

- conform (hoekgetrow/conforme), i.e. the shapes of the Earth's features are maintained;

 

- equivalent (oppervlaktegetrouw/equivalent), i.e. the Earth's surfaces are respected (something which is absolutely not the case for the famous Mercator World Chart – see above);

 

- equidistant (afstandsgetrouw/equidistant), i.e. the scale (schaal/échelle) is maintained on the whole surface of the chart.

 

Another particularity, especially when a conic projection is involved, is that the meridians are not parallel but converging (which, in fact, is absolutely normal): because of this, when measuring the direction of a route (track), the angle must be measured from the meridian which is the closest to the midpoint between departure and arrival.

For the remainder, this briefing will be devoted to a rapid review of material which you are supposed to have studied during the navigation groundcourse, particularly:

 

- The difference between heading and route (track);

 

- The definition of true, magnetic and compass heading;

 

- The origin of magnetic variation (magnetische variatie/déclinaison magnétique) and magnetic deviation (magnetische deviatie/déviation magnétique) ;

 

- Isogonals and agonic line (isogonen an agoon/isogone et agone), and their representation on the chart;

 

- Symbology and indications on the aeronautical chart which you will use;

 

- Solving the triangle of velocities and use of the computer;

 

- The conversion factors (see below);

 

- Conversion of TAS in CAS/RAS and IAS and conversely;

 

- Altimeter problems;

 

-Analysis of the "Met Folder": METAR's, TAF's, SIGMETS, NOTAMS, SNOWTAMS, etc., prognostic chart, wind chart and associated symbols;

 

- A short review of the meteorological dangers such as icing, fog formation, thunderstorms.

 

As most of these subjects are part of the groundcourse f the instructor will only make sure that these have been properly understood. Solve the questions hereafter: this should be possible without any problem, in which case this briefing can be significantly shortened, the remainder of the time available being then used to proceed with lesson 33.

 

 

SOME USEFUL CONVERSION FACTORS:

 

 

FEET TO METERS MULTIPLY BY 0,3048

 

METERS TO FEET MULTIPLY BY 3,281

 

KILOMETERS TO NAUTICAL MILES MULTIPLY BY 0,5396

 

NAUTICAL MILES TO KILOMETERS   MULTIPLY BY 1,852

 

KILOMETERS TO STATUTE MILES   MULTIPLY BY 0,621

 

STATUTE MILES TO KILOMETERS MULTIPLY BY 1,609

 

KILOGRAMS TO POUNDS (LBS) MULTIPLY BY 2,205

 

POUNDS (LB8) TO KILOGRAMS MULTIPLY BY 0,454

 

U. S. GALLONS TO LITERS MULTIPLY BY 3,785

 

LITERS TO U.S. GALLON8 MULTIPLY BY 0,264

 

IMPERIAL GALLONS TO LITERS MULTIPLY BY 4,456

 

LITERS TO IMPERIAL GALLONS MULTIPLY BY 0,22

 

QUARTS TO LITERS MULTIPLY BY 0,946

 

LITERS TO QUARTS MULTIPLY BY 1,057

 

FAHRENHEIT TO CENTIGRADE = F° - 32 X 5/9

 

CENTIGRADE TO FAHRENHEIT = C° X 9/5 + 32

 

 

B.- FLIGHT TRAINING (Dual 00,00 h. - Total 21,30 h.)(Solo 00,00 h. - Total 09,00 h.)(Total D+S 30,30 h.)

 

Nil

 

 

 

C. - QUESTIONARY

 

 

01. - The present navigation method which you will use is known as D.R., i.e. _________________________ navigation.

 

02. - A distance of 20 nms is represented on a 1/250000 scale chart by _____ centimetres.

 

03. - State the difference between a great circle and a small circle.

 

04. - State the difference between a meridian and a parallel.

 

05. - The separation between northern and southern hemisphere is determined by ____________________________.

 

06. - The separation between eastern and western hemisphere is determined by ____________________________.

 

07. - The latitude is the location of a point in relation to: a) the equator, b) the Greenwich meridian.

 

08. - The longitude is the location of a point in relation to: a) the equator, b) the Greenwich meridian.

 

09. - Longitude and latitude are expressed in_______________  respectively of _______________ and of _______________.

 

10. - 1 nautical miles equals __________ of a _____________ circle.

 

11. - Some aeronautical charts are UTM projections. UTM stands for _____________________________________.

 

12. - An UTM chart is: a) an azimuthal projection, b) a cylindrical projection, c) a conic projection.

 

13. - The Lambert projection is: al azimuthal, b) cylindrical, c) conic.

 

14. - The Lambert projection is said to have two standard parallels. What does this mean?

 

15. - The aeronautical chart which you will use is a ________________ projection.

 

16. - The aeronautical chart which you will use is an exact representation of the Earth's surface. True or false?

 

17. - A geographical chart can be conform. What is the meaning of this term?

 

18. - A geographical chart can be equidistant. What is the meaning of this term?

 

19. - A geographical chart can be equivalent. What is the meaning of this term?

 

20. - How do you measure the angle of a route (track) on a Lambert conical projection? Why?

 

21. – You fly from A to B. You fly the complete journey at 2000 ft with altimeter set on the QNH of A which is 1000 mb. Your destination is located at 800 ft above sea level, and the local QNH is 980 mb. What will be your height above the ground when overflying the destination?

 

22. - The route (track) is 120° true. The wind at flight level 80 is 160°/20 kts. The variation is +4°, the deviation is -2°. Assuming a TAS of 115 kts, calculate:

 

- the true heading: _____°

- the magnetic heading: _____°

- the compass heading; _____°

- the groundspeed: _____ kts

- the drift: ________ °

- the drift correction: _____°

 

23. – (POH) Considering your training aircraft, assuming cruising level 80 with an OAT of ISA +20°, 65% power, find:

 

- the actual OAT; _____°

- the density altitude: _____ft

- the TAS _____kts

- the CAS/RAS: _____kts

- the IAS: _____kts

 

 

24. - Considering question 22, assuming that you are compelled to return to your point of departure, and considering a deviation of +2° on the new heading, calculate:

 

- The true heading: _____°

- The magnetic heading: _____°

- The compass heading: _____°

- The groundspeed: _____ kts

- The drift: _____°

- The drift correction: _____°

 

25. - You depart point A towards point B. The altimeter is set on the QNH 1020 mb. You decide to fly all the way at 1500 ft with the altimeter setting unchanged. There is a hill range up to 600 ft MSL across the track. During flight, the cloud base forces you to descent until the altimeter reads 1000ft. You are unaware that, in the area of the hill range, the QNH dropped to 1000 mb. By how many" feet will you clear the hill range?

 

 

 

 

A.- BRIEFING (02,00 h. - Total 31,30 h.)

 

A safe and successful D.R. navigation requires a good preparation. Admittedly, such a preparation can be reduced to near nothing when a short hop is considered along a well known route to a well known destination, but this can hardly be qualified as a genuine navigation. Matters become entirely different when the flight involves longer distances, over less well known areas, to destinations where one has never been before: in this case, a deficient preparation may lead to serious problems.

 

Although the elementary training aims at the national private pilot licence and that basically no flights to foreign countries are yet to be considered, the following principles apply all over the world. Furthermore, many aspects of D.R. navigation also apply to the future radionavigation operations. Once you will be at that stage, always keep in mind that the most advanced navigational aids might fail or, as is the case in some remote areas, may simply be non-existent, so that you are again committed to basic D.R.

 

The preparation of a navigation flight includes two parts. The first one is the most comprehensive and may be carried hours, even days, before the flight. The second part must be done immediately before departure and will be covered in lesson 34. Let us now discuss the first part, and your instructor may as well take this opportunity to plan your very first actual navigation with you.

 

1°) General survey of the intended route

 

Begin with a rough estimate of the total distance involved. If needed, this can be done by means of customary atlas maps: the main point is to determine whether or not the distance is within the range of the aircraft, taking into consideration a fuel reserve of 45 minutes after reaching the destination (VFR navigation flights do not require an alternate airport). This is usually no problem as long as one can depart with full fuel tanks, and that no extreme distances are involved.

 

At any rate, even if your aircraft is able to fly for five or six hours or more before refuelling, planning stretches of more than three hours should be avoided ,were it only because there is no toilet on board of light aircraft. Still, one must keep the following in mind:

 

- Because of the maximum structural takeoff weight restriction (which will be fully discussed in lesson 34), it is not always possible to depart with full fuel tanks. As a matter of fact, on most aircraft the amount of fuel is to be limited when all seats are occupied, particularly if, on top of that, baggage or other items are carried on board;

 

- Navigation flights are often carried out either to destination and back, or from one destination to another, without refuelling. Always see to it that the fuel supply remains adequate for each leg... without forgetting the 45 minutes reserve at every destination, even when returning to the home base.

 

Gather all information regarding your destination and possible intermediate airports. These information are available in the AlP's, or in non-official publications such as Bottlang, Jeppesen, or similar. Note particularly:

 

- The days and times of opening;

- The need, or not, for prior permission;

- Availability of custom services;

- Availability of fuel and technical assistance;

- Possible restrictions or rules for VFR operations;

- Airport elevation;

- Nature and length of the runways, including emergency strips;

- Layout of the taxiways and possible location of the general aviation parking;

- Availability of ATC, radar, VRF/DF, ATIS, and associated frequencies;

- possible significant obstacles in the immediate vicinity of the airport;

- Availability of meteorological services.

 

Draw now a FAINT and ERASABLE line between the point of departure and the first destination (as well as between the first destination and the second one, the second one and the third one, etc. until the final point of arrival). Study carefully these various routes and note the possible existence of problem areas such as:

 

- Inhospitable regions: significant sea crossings, desert or jungle areas, etc. If flying over such places is unavoidable, try at least to keep the crossings as short as possible. Also be aware that such operations are often submitted to special official clearance and that, at least, suitable safety equipment must be available on board. Take for instance the passage from Belgium to England: although no special clearance is required in this case, the shortest crossing should be preferred, and life-jackets should be available nonetheless. And incidentally, these life-jackets, which should not be outdated, must be donned in deflated condition before departure (never inflate a life-jacket inside the aircraft) by every occupant. Note also that your passengers must be informed about their correct use before taking off. As far as Belgian territory is concerned, one can hardly talk about inhospitable areas: still, flying at the minimum legal altitude with a single-engined aircraft aver large cities or wide forest areas remains rather unsafe.

 

- High mountains: choose a route avoiding safely the highest tops. If your destination is located somewhere in mountainous area, see to it that you can reach it via wide valleys (if not, first follow a course about mountain flying in a specialized school, and with fully qualified instructors to this purpose).

- Prohibited and danger areas: although these are not always active (see the NOTAMS in his concern), it remains commendable to avoid these areas for planning purposes.

 

- Restricted areas: provided that bi-lateral radio communications are maintained between the pilot and the ATC, these may be crossed. Recall that transponder is mostly required as well. If neither VHF nor transponder is available on board, these areas should be considered as prohibited.

 

- TMA's, CTR's and airways: also here, bi-lateral radio communications and transponder are required. Again, if neither VHF nor transponder is available on board, these areas must be considered as prohibited.

 

2°) Drawing of the intended route on the chart

 

Draw now the definitive route on the chart, taking into consideration the various factors mentioned above. Chances are that, in order to stay clear of questionable areas, the final route will not be a direct line between departure and destination, but a succession of straight segments, in which case each turning point should preferably be located over, or at least in the immediate vicinity of, an easily recognizable landmark.

 

The point of departure of the navigation, and the origin of the track line on the chart, can be overhead the airfield: in this case, a circling climb should be carried out, the actual navigation and the time starting when overhead, established at the initial cruising altitude or level, as well as on the initial compass heading. Many airports feature so-called VFR exit (and entry) points: if this is the case, the climb to cruising altitude can be carried out while proceeding towards the most suitable exit point from where the actual navigation is then initiated, and from where the track line originates, (if a VFR entry point is required at destination, this is where the navigation and the associated track line ends). The most efficient way is to take off, and to set course immediately to the destination, or at least to the first enroute turning point (or to the VFR exit point) while climbing to the required cruising altitude.

 

3°) Measuring the total distance

 

With the definitive route laid down on the chart, one can measure exactly the total distance to ensure that the flight is feasible without intermediate stop, and that the destination can be reached with at least 45 minutes reserve. If this is not the case, or questionable, things are stretched too far, and you better consider an intermediate refuelling stop (which means that you might have to re-assess the previously intended route).

 

 

The measuring of the distance should be in the same units than those used for the airspeed indicator', mostly nautical miles. Recall that if you measure a distance of 50 cm on a chart scaled 1/250000 I this length equals 125 km (50 x 2 I 5) This distance must be converted to nautical milesl i.e 68 nms (125 x 0/5396).

 

4°) Checkpoints along the route

 

Along the route and its various possible segments, choose easily recognizable checkpoints located either on the track or slightly sideways. In some areas there are plenty of these. No need to take them all into consideration: selecting one for about every 10 minutes flight time should be sufficient. “Easily recognizable” checkpoints are major railways, roads, highways I large streams or rivers (particularly when crossing the track), cities, large towns, lakes, etc. In other areas I checkpoints are scarce, sometimes even completely non-existent: in such a case, you are committed to make use of the "time and heading" technique I i.e. accurately maintaining the calculated compass heading for exactly the calculated time to the turning point, pick up the new calculated heading to the next turning point, etc. Note incidentally that proper adherence to time and heading during flight is THE secret of any successful D.R. navigation: unless you made a capital mistake in the calculations before departure, you will never end up very far from your final destination.

 

Mark every selected checkpoint by a circle on the chart, and label them 1, 2, 3, etc. until the destination: these ciphers will be used on the flight-log (see below) under the label CPT.

 

5°) Value of the variation

 

As long as only flights over Belgian territory are carried out, a single value of the variation may be considered for the whole country (-1°, anno 2009). However, on very long journeys, particularly when a number of intermediate stops are required to reach a distant destination, the variation may change considerably and become a significant factor, especially for D.R. navigation.

 

Recall that the variation is shown on the aeronautical charts by means of the so-called isogonals (isogonen/isogones).

 

6°) Cruising altitude or flight level & minimum safe altitude

 

Because of the often changing weather conditions in Belgium and surrounding countries, the choice of the cruising altitude or flight level will always be a problem as long as VFR operations are involved. In fact, D.R. navigation in VFR requires the pilot to stay out of clouds and in adequate visibility during the whole journey. Flying "VFR on top", i. e. flying VMC above the clouds is sometimes safely feasible but generally speaking, and again considering possible rapid weather changes, it is not to be recommended.

 

Besides weather conditions, regulations are also likely to restrict the choice of the cruising altitude. For one thing, in Belgium, the TMA of Brussels-National covers a significant part of the country, not to speak about the TMA of Ostend and similar military areas. All these airspaces are forbidden territory to aircraft without adequate radio and transponder equipment: one must then stay below these areas, thus restricting the choice of the cruising altitude even more. This is the reason why, nowadays, radio and transponder, and the knowledge of how to use these, is so very important to the VFR pilot.

 

There are many reasons to choose a high cruising altitude whenever possible:

 

1°) The view is much better and the checkpoints are more easily recognizable;

 

2°) One has more chances to encounter smooth weather conditions. Indeed, particularly when surface winds are fairly strong, flying at lower altitude can be pretty bumpy because of the friction of the wind over the ground surface: this may give way to significant turbulence up to 3000 ft, sometimes even more and, besides the fact that such conditions are usually not appreciated by your passengers, they are also likely to affect the wind velocity used for your calculations;

 

3°) The higher you fly, the more extended will be the range of the radiocommunications, amongst others with “Brussels Information";

 

4°) When flying in controlled areas, certainly within TMA's, your aircraft is usually tracked by radar, which considerably improves the flight safety, BUT WHICH DOES NOT EXEMPT YOU OF LOOK-OUT;

 

5°) Finally, and this is perhaps the most important reason for a single-engined aircraft, in the most unlikely case that you are faced with an engine failure, you have much more chances to find a suitable spot to perform a forced landing. However, as things are regarding VFR navigation and associated weather problems, no definite method can be put forward about the choice of a cruising altitude. Just keep the following in mind:

 

a) Along the definitive route, and for each segment, check the chart for terrain elevation, as well as for man-made obstacles which might appear in the immediate vicinity of the track (say up to about 10 nms each side). Recall that the elevations of terrain and/or obstacles are reported in relation to MSL (Mean Sea Level). For each route segment, add 1000 ft to the highest of these values, thus determining a minimum safe cruising altitude, or MSA, for each of these segments, and which also must appear on the flight-log (see below). Assuming that the cloud base does not allow you to climb to a higher altitude or flight level or that, during the journey, it forces you to descend, you should not continue a flight below this altitude in deteriorating weather conditions: the only sensible solution is to DIVERT TO AN INTERMEDIATE AIRPORT (see below), or TURN BACK!

 

b) Depending on the total distance to be covered, select a "theoretical" and safe cruising altitude, but of course keeping in mind that you have no oxygen on board: this is where the "TIME, FUEL AND DISTANCE TO CLIMB" information in the POR can be helpful. Remember that when flying above 3000 ft AGL in non-controlled airspace, the so-called semi-circular system should be respected. This system is established according to the magnetic route (track) and determines the following even or odd altitudes or, if above the transition altitude (4500 ft QNH), flight levels:

 

from 000° to 179°                             from 180° to 359°    

(Odd + 500)                                       (Even+ 500)

3500                                                   4500  

5500                                                   6500  

7500                                                   8500  

9500                                                   10500

11500                                                 12500

etc.                                                      etc.     

 

 

Assuming that the flight is carried out in controlled airspace, IFR flight levels are required, i.e. flight levels ending by 000.

 

7°) Suitable intermediate airports

 

Although VFR flights do not require an alternate airport as such, it is strongly recommended to be aware of the various suitable airports and airfields located within a reasonable distance of the intended route. This knowledge can prove useful, firstly in case of deteriorating weather conditions, secondly in case of any other problem which might dictate an unscheduled landing.

 

Let us clarify the term "suitable" intermediate airport: access to most military airfields is prohibited for civilian aircraft. So are all major and regional airports for aircraft without adequate radio equipment. However, assuming a genuine life threatening emergency any airport may be used, even without radio. However, in this latter case (and even on small private fields), extreme carefulness is required to avoid air misses, i.e. near collisions (or worse). Furthermore, one must make oneself known by carefully joining the circuit, passing overhead the runway while rocking wings, and wait for the appropriate lamp signal for landing (which, incidentally, is nowadays not always very efficient on some airfields). At any rate, landing without radio on major, regional or military airfields may yield to a very serious investigation as to the nature of the emergency, and possibly lead to a severe penalty.

 

Smaller private airfields may be closed, either permanently or temporarily, but these can always be used to perform a forced landing in case of technical problem. Finally, for international journeys, airfields with custom services should be preferred.

 

Just as for the destinations, information regarding possible alternate airfields should be gathered from the AlP, Bottlang, Jeppesen, etc.

 

8°) Cruise performances

 

The cruise TAS, which is to be used in combination with the route (track) and the prevailing winds in order to determine the ground-speed/ results firstly from the selected power setting, secondly from the selected cruising altitude.

 

The performance part in most POH's considers various percentages of power ranging usually from 45% or 55% to 75%. Recall that the mixture is not supposed to be leaned above 75% (see PILOT NOTE I), which is the reason why no higher power settings are considered. Obviously, one could use more than 75% and obtain a higher TAS but, because of the compulsory full rich mixture, the fuel consumption would become excessive.

On the other hand, the lowest published power setting, i.e. 45% or 55%/ results in the lowest TAS, and is mainly intended for maximum range (afstand/distance) or maximum endurance (vluchtduur/endurance). Although the aircraft would be able to cruise at much lower speeds (remember the exercises of slow flight) / the angle of attack would become so high that, in order to overcome the increased drag, additional power becomes increasingly necessary, thus also increasing the fuel consumption and adversely affecting both range and endurance (not to speak about the rather uncomfortable flight attitude). For normal operations, a power setting of ±65% is mostly used because it reduces the engine noise somewhat, while still allowing for a fairly high TAS.

 

Aircraft performances, and factors affecting them are normally studied during the groundcourse for the commercial pilot licence. Nonetheless, your instructor will show you and comment the various graphs and tables published in the POH of your training aircraft, the presentation of which may vary significantly from one manufacturer to another. Regarding the cruise performances/ the following should be noted:

 

a) for a given percentage of power, the TAS tends to increase with altitude. In other words, considering that, for VFR navigation, the cruising altitude largely depends on the weather conditions, if you are compelled to fly lower than the selected "theoretical" cruising altitude mentioned above, the TAS will be somewhat lower/ and so will be the range.

 

b) for a given percentage of power, the range increases with altitude.

 

Note: Some range graphs show an increase of range with altitude, up to a point from where the range starts to decrease again, whereas others show a near linear increase of range with altitude. The reason behind this phenomenon is to be sought in the way in which the graph has been established. Some consider only the fuel consumption for engine start, taxi, takeoff, then climbing and maintaining the altitude until the lowest fuel limit is reached: as the fuel required for climb is fairly high, particularly when climbing to greater heights, the fuel remaining for the actual cruise is obviously less. Other graphs take into consideration the reduced fuel consumption during the descent: this compensates for the fuel used during climb and produces a more linear increase of range.

 

c) for a given percentage of power, the endurance tends to decrease steadily with altitude;

 

d) in order to maintain a given percentage of power with increasing altitude, the throttle must gradually be opened to obtain a higher RPM setting (or to maintain the MAP in the case of a constant speed propeller) ;

 

e) for a given percentage of power, there is a marked improvement, albeit a momentary one, for both range and endurance, when the aircraft reaches an altitude where the throttle is fully opened.

 

Do not misunderstand the cruise tables and/or graphs: remember that these are always based on the density altitude, not on the mere elevation above ground level. For example, assuming that you take off from an airfield located at 2000 ft MSL, and that you intend to cruise at 3000 ft AGL, this means that you will actually be flying at 5000 ft MSL but, depending on the OAT, the density altitude might be higher or lower. Also be aware that the various parameters imply that the mixture control is adjusted in accordance with the recommendations laid down in the POH.

 

In some POH's you will meet the term specific range. This is simply the ratio between the TAS and the hourly fuel consumption. For instance, if a TAS of 96 kts combines with a fuel consumption of 5,4 USG/hour, considering that 1 USG equals 6 lbs, the specific range is:

 

96 nms 96 nms

= 2,96 nms per 1 lb of fuel

5,4 x 6 32,4 lbs

 

 

9°) VHF radio frequencies

 

Assuming that VHF will be used, it'is useful to note on the flight-log the civilian and military FIC (Flight Information Center) frequencies applicable to the intended route. As there is Brussels Information, on 126.90 MHz, which happens to be valid for the whole of Belgium, there are similar FIC frequencies abroad such a "Amsterdam Information”, "Paris information”, "Düsseldorf Information", "London information”, etc. Note that there can be several FIC frequencies for one single country. In fact, there is at least one such frequency for each FIR: for instance in France, besides "Paris Information”, there is also "Bordeaux Information" and "Marseille Information".

There are also military information frequencies such as, for Belgium, "Belga Information" (129,32 MHz).

 

There is no need to note the various control frequencies which you might need along the route: there are so many of these, and often different frequencies for one single controlling unit, that this is likely to become an impossible task. At any rate, if needed during flight, any required control frequency will normally be provided to you in due time by the current FIC. However, in this case it is strongly recommended to note this specific frequency on the flight-log.

 

Besides FIC frequencies which, as the denomination implies, provide only information service, also VOLMET and ATIS frequencies applicable to the intended route should be noted. The difference between these two services, which both are only monitoring frequencies, is that an ATIS frequency provides all relevant information regarding one specific airport (weather, runway in use, possible inoperative ground equipment, closed runways or taxiways, etc.), whereas a VOLMET frequency provides only weather information for a number of airports within a specific FIR as well as within the surrounding ones. For instance, Brussels VOLMET operates on 127.80 MHz and provides the METAR's of Brussels-National, Ostend, London Heathrow, Köln-Bann, Düsseldorf, Paris and Luxembourg (for some mysterious reason it does not provide any information regarding Antwerp, Charleroi and Liège). Similar VOLMET frequencies are in force in the FIR's of Amsterdam (126.20 MHz), Paris (126,00 MHz), Frankfurt (127.60 MHz), etc.

 

10°) Flight-log

 

The flight-log, which was already mentioned a few times earlier, is a document which is used by the pilot during flight to verify the progress of the navigation and to note any related useful matters. Flight-logs exist in an infinity of variants, each having its own advantages and drawbacks. Some pilots prefer a model which fits on a lap-plate, others, particularly for aircraft with a stick rather than a control wheel, are more in favour of a smaller one which can be fitted to a knee-board fixed on the thigh. The contents of the flight-log may vary considerably depending on whether its purpose is for pure D.R. or for radionavigation or IFR. It also may include additional information, such as fuel and weight calculations.

 

At this stage of the training, which involves only D. R. navigation, it is probably commendable to use a more detailed flight-log which, besides its function during flight, also guides the student through the various steps of the preparation stage of the navigation. The model hereafter (already completely prepared as an example) has been designed to this purpose, and allows to be folded to fit on a knee-board as well as on a lap-plate.

 

Let us now examine the various rubrics shown on this specific model, and which must be taken into consideration during the first part of the navigation preparation. Besides those which are self-explanatory, we find:

 

- CPT: for "checkpoints", i.e. the various checkpoints and turning points, labelled 1, 2, 3, etc., which you selected on the chart and which you note in the same fashion on the flight-log, thus avoiding lengthy descriptions;

 

- MSA: for "minimum safe altitude", i.e. the MSA between each selected checkpoint;

 

- TAS: for "true airspeed": use the TAS published for the selected "theoretical" cruising altitude, or level, in ISA conditions. As was mentioned here above, this value varies with the prevailing density altitude and, considering the ever changing weather conditions and the possible need to fly at a lower altitude, the actual value might be slightly less. Assuming that course is set directly to the destination, or to the first turning point after taking off, or to the VFR exit point for that matter, the climb towards the planned cruising altitude or level implies a lower average TAS: here again, the "TIME, FUEL AND DISTANCE TO CLIMB" information will prove useful. Note that the actual distance to climb depends on the prevailing winds but, for flight planning purposes, zero wind conditions may be taken into consideration;

 

- T.T. (or T.C.): for "true track" ("true course"), i.e. the route direction as measured on the chart;

 

- VAR.: for "variation";

 

- P. P. : far "point-to-point", i. e. the distance between each checkpoint;

 

- REM: far "remaining", i. e. the remaining distance to the destination.

 

Note: The first line of the flight-log, thus the very first checkpoint should mention the departure airport. Disregard all other rubrics, except the distance point-to-point (P.P.) which should read zero, and the distance remaining (REM) which should of course read the total distance to be covered. The last line should show zero for REM. Assuming that the destination point is a VFR entry point, an additional line, marked APP for "approach" under the label CPT, and showing the estimated distance to landing may be added for fuel calculation purpose.

 

The flight-log also includes spaces to note useful VOLMET, ATIS and FIC frequencies. All other rubrics, W/V, TH, MH, CH, etc. can only be filled shortly before departure and are discussed in the second part of the navigation preparation.

 

11°) Request for weather information

 

The request for weather information should be made in due time, preferably the day before the flight, to allow the meteorological service to prepare an adequate coverage for the intended route. As long as the navigation is carried out over

Belgian territory, there is little problem: information for the whole country are always readily available. However, for longer journeys to foreign countries, this is not always the case, hence a timely request.

 

Note also that METAR's and TAF's are always available for important airports I but rarely for private airfields.

 

It may happen that your home base is not provided with an adequate meteorological office. Such is the case for most private airfields such as BalenKeiheuvel, Zwartberg, Amougies, etc. Some regional airports do have such an office, but often manned by observers instead of properly qualified forecasters. Assuming that adequate informations cannot be obtained for one reason or for another at your home base, you may introduce your request by telephone to the meteorological services of the Brussels-National airport (tel.: 02/7536544 or 02/7536545). Assuming that you have a fax, all required information can be sent to you in this way.

 

Your request must include the following details:

 

a) the date and intended time of departure in GMT, i.e. Greenwich Mean Time, NOT the local time;

 

b) the type of aircraft;

 

c) the fact that you are flying VFR only;

 

d) the airports of departure and destination.

 

You should request at least:

 

a) the TAF'S and METAR's of the airports of departure and destination or, if these are not available, of more important airports in the region;

 

b) the so-called synoptic or prognostic chart, if at all possible, or at least an adequate verbal briefing;

 

c) the forecasted winds along the route at your planned cruising altitude or flight level;

 

d) possible SIGMET's.

 

 

B.- FLIGHT TRAINING (Dual 00,00 h. - Total 21,30 h.)(Solo 00,00 h. - Total 09,00 h.)(Total D+S 30,30 h.)

 

Nil.

 

 

C.- QUESTIONARY

 

 

01. - (POH) Assuming full fuel tanks, maximum takeoff weight, no wind and ISA conditions, state the maximum range of your training aircraft.

 

02. - (POH) You fly from A to destination B. Upon arrival in B you should still have a fuel reserve for a duration of _________.

 

03. - (POH) Assuming full fuel tanks, maximum takeoff weight and ISA conditions, state the maximum endurance of your training aircraft.

 

04. - You cannot always use full fuel tanks for navigation flights (or for any other flight for that matter). Why not?

 

05. - State the only official publication in which you can find information regarding major and regional airports.

 

06. - During a navigation flight from A to B via turning point C, there is not a single adequate landmark neither in C nor along the segments AC and CB. This is impossible to accomplish in D.R. navigation. True or false?

 

07. - You intend to fly over the Channel to England. Which four particular safety precautions should be taken with regard to the occupants in case of engine failure over the Channel?

 

08. - The semi-circular system is only applicable when flying above the transition altitude. True or false?

 

09. - The semi-circular system is based on the ___________ track.

 

10. - (POH) You wish to cruise at 65% power at FL 65 with your training aircraft. The reported OAT at this level is 28°C. State the resulting TAS. And the lAS?

 

11. - The TAS is 94 kts. The associated fuel consumption is 4,7 GPH. State the current specific range.

 

12. - What is the difference between an ATIS and a VOLMET?

 

13. - State the frequency of “Brussels information”.

 

14. - There is only one FIC frequency for each country. True or false?

 

 

 

A.- BRIEFING (02,00 h. - Total 33,30 h.)

 

This second part of the navigation preparation can only be carried out once the forecasted winds are known, i. e. once you obtained the current weather conditions. Your instructor will show you a typical "met folder" and discuss its various contents.

 

A thorough weather briefing is essential for a successful and safe VFR navigation. Let us emphasize it once again: when D.R. navigation is involved, you need nothing less than VERY GOOD weather conditions. Be aware that the calculations that you are going to make rely on mere approximations rather than on absolutely correct parameters. Indeed, the TAS may vary with altitude, while wind directions and velocities are only forecasted values which may sometimes significantly differ from the actual ones. In other words the headings and the groundspeeds which you are about to establish are themselves approximations and will probably call for corrections and adjustments in flight. Besides TAS's and winds of varying nature, the compass deviation card is perhaps somewhat less accurate than it should be, not to speak about possible heading changes which might be required enroute, either by ATC or for other reasons. It is evident that, because of all these things, you are likely to drift off somewhat from the ideal track and, if the visibility is questionable, you might not be able to notice the error in due time and inadvertently end up within a military CTR, a dangerous or prohibited area, or whatever place where you are not supposed to be.

 

At any rate, once you have obtained the weather conditions, take some time to analyze them carefully. Assuming that dubious conditions are expected, never hesitate to question the weather forecaster about it: this person is not only highly qualified for his job, he is also aware of the needs of a VFR pilot and is able to provide a lot of useful advice and recommendations for the flight you intend to carry out. Assuming the weather conditions are too doubtful, particularly regarding the visibility and the cloud base along the route, don't hesitate to POSTPONE THE FLIGHT!!!

 

Once you are satisfied that the weather is adequate, you can now proceed with the further preparation and the completion of the flight-log:

 

- W/V: for "wind direction and velocity", i. e. the wind expressed in the true direction where it comes from, and in knots. Remember that if your airspeed indicator is in other units (mostly m.p.h.), you must convert it accordingly. Assuming that your navigation starts immediately after takeoff either to the first turning point or to a VFR exit point, you should, as for the TAS, use an average value between the ground surface and the intended cruising altitude. For cruise planning (recall that it starts at the theoretical top of climb without wind, one more factor which is likely to induce some discrepancies) unless the forecasted w/v changes drastically enroute, an average value at cruising level may be used on all route segments.

 

- T. H.: for "true heading", i. e. the heading calculated according to the forecasted W/V and the (assumed) TAS.

 

- M.H.: for “magnetic heading", i.e. the true heading corrected for the current variation. (C. H. will be discussed later).

 

- GS: for "groundspeed", i.e. the speed with regard to the ground surface resulting from the combination of the track, the (assumed) TAS and the forcasted W/V.

 

- EET/TOT: for "estimated elapsed time" and "total". These are the estimated times, resulting from the GSP, between the various checkpoints, as well as the total time from the departure point to each of these checkpoints.

 

The rubrics C.H., ETO, ATO and RETO are to be filled later, and are discussed in lesson 35.

 

Fuel calculation

 

The total distance and the expected duration of the flight being established, the required fuel can now be calculated. On the flight-log you find the following steps to this purpose:

 

- START-TAXI-T/O: this is the required fuel to start the engine, to taxi, to perform the engine run-up, and to take off. Some POH's provide an average value (which, if a very long taxi is expected, may be increased as required). If no such information is available, the following conservative rule of the thumb may be applied for most light aircraft engines:

 

Engine BHP x 8/1000

 

Let us assume that the engine develops 110 BHP, as is, the case for the Cessna 152, this rule should result in the following:

 

110 x 8/1000 = 0,88 USG, say 0,9 USG

(against 0,8 USG in the POH)

 

For the Cessna 172, with an engine of 160 BRP:

 

160 x 8/1000 1,28 USG, say 1,3 USG

(against 1,1 USG in the POR)

 

For the Cessna 172RG, with an engine of 180 BRP:

 

180 x 8/1000 = 1,44 USG, say 1,5 USG

(against 1,4 USG in the POR)

 

- CLIMB: this is the fuel required until reaching the theoretical top of climb (TOC), assuming a constant climb within the conditions laid down in the POR, and considering the published "TIME, FUEL AND DISTANCE TO CLIMB" tables or graphs. Note that these information are valid from sea level up, and must thus be adapted if the departure airport's elevation is significantly higher than sea level. Note also that an average climb TAS can be extracted from these tables or graphs which, in combination with the average W/V between the ground and the cruising altitude, allows to establish the actual top of climb which can be indicated on the flight-log as TOC under the label CPT.

 

- CRUISE: this is the fuel required from the TOC to the destination, assuming that the cruising altitude is maintained until overhead either the destination airport, or a possible VFR entry point, from where an estimated fuel consumption should be added for descent and approach. Some POR's include "TIME, FUEL AND DISTANCE TO DESCEND" information allowing to refine the calculations even further if so desired.

 

- TRIP FUEL: this the theoretical total fuel required for the intended journey and equals the sum of START-TAXI-T/O + CLIMB + CRUISE (+ DESCENT, assuming that a "time, fuel and distance to descend" is taken into consideration). Obviously, the trip fuel can only be calculated fairly accurately when the enroute wind is known.

 

- CONTINGENCY: this is a reserve for unpredictable circumstances. We mentioned already the fact that the calculations are based on mere estimations and approximations and that, because of this, their result will only rarely be absolutely correct. The discrepancies can be profitable of detrimental and, as far as fuel calculations are concerned, one is well advised to consider and additional safety factor of at least 5% of the trip fuel.

 

- RESERVE 45 MIN: this is the minimum reserve fuel which should be available upon reaching the destination. It is calculated at the maximum endurance power setting and, for a given aircraft type, remains a fixed value (see POR).

 

- FUEL REOUIRED: this is the minimum amount of fuel to safely execute the flight and equals the sum of TRIP FUEL + CONTINGENCY + RESERVE 45 MIN.

 

- FUEL ON BOARD: this is the actual fuel on board before engine start. Obviously, this value may not be less than FUEL REQUIRED. Too much fuel is obviously better than too little and, at least as far as light aircraft are concerned, it is always preferable to have full fuel tanks for departure, at least provided that the maximum allowable takeoff weight is not exceeded. Because of this latter limitation, it is necessary to verify the "Load and Trim" of the aircraft (see below) before deciding the FUEL ON BOARD. And assuming that you would reach an overload with the FUEL REQUIRED, your options are either to take less passengers, or to take less baggage . . . . . or to take less fuel and consider an intermediate refuelling stop.

 

Load and trim

 

The maximum allowable takeoff weight may never be exceeded. Disregarding this limitation leads to a number of detrimental consequences amongst which abnormal long takeoff distance, degraded climb performance, increased stall speeds and abnormal forces acting on the aircraft's structure. As we shall see, there are other weight limitations besides for takeoff.

 

Regarding the forces acting on the aircraft's structure, let us come back to the theory of aerodynamic load factors. Many pilots do not realize that these load factors are not only caused by manoeuvres, but also by normal turbulence, as well as by all too "positive" landings. Think about this: assuming that an aircraft is overloaded by 50 kgs, this means that if a 2G acceleration is sustained (which is not unlikely in strong turbulence), the overload raises to 100 kgs. For a 3G acceleration, the overload becomes 150 kgs, etc. Such overloads will certainly not cause a structural failure at once, but fact is that their repetition over a longer period is likely to lead to premature structural fatigue which, if not traced in due time (and luckily, this is why aircraft are submitted by law to compulsory technical investigations), might indeed lead to a catastrophic failure, even under normal loads. It is equally imperative to ensure that the center of gravity is within the allowable limits. Exceeding these may lead to severe handling difficulties during flight, and in extreme cases, to a fatal outcome.

At any rate, taking off in overload or with an out of limits center of gravity is illegal and might, in case of serious incident or accident, give way to extremely severe juridic penalties for the pilot in charge, particularly if it is proven that the act was deliberate.

 

Let us first clarify a number of terms which appear in the POH:

 

1°) Center of gravity or C.G. (zwaartepunt/centre de gravité): the C.G. is the location where the weight exerts its force. Consequently, if the aircraft is loaded forward, the C.G. will move forward, and conversely if it is loaded rearward. In lesson II, we mentioned the effect of the C.G. on the fuel consumption which tends to decrease when it moves to the rear. We mentioned also its effect on the aircraft's longitudinal stability during flight: one can easily imagine that if the C.G. is located forward, a greater force must be exerted on the stick to move the nose up, as compared to a rearward location of the C.G. In other words, the longitudinal stability increases with a forward C.G. One can also imagine that, if the C.G. is moved too far forward, and particularly at lower speeds such as during the takeoff phase, the efficiency of the elevator can be degraded to such an extend that the aircraft is unable to lift off in due time. Conversely, the longitudinal stability decreases with a rear C. G., and the aircraft becomes more difficult to handle: the nose will move up much faster when aft stick is applied and, if the C.G. is moved too far rearward, the aircraft might easily become stalled upon rotation far liftoff. Note incidentally that, for aerobatics, some degree of instability is desired: this is the reason why, when tandem cockpits are involved, when only one pilot is on board he will usually be installed on the rear seat. At any rate, the G.G. must always be within the limits determined by the manufacturer: this is the purpose of the trim part in the load and TRIM, or weight and BALANCE calculations.

 

2°) Reference datum, or simply datum (referentiepunt/point de référence) : this is an imaginary vertical plane, usually located at the engine's firewall (although any other location may be selected as well), from where the horizontal distances of all the subparts of the aircraft, as well as of the occupants, their baggage and/or cargo, are measured. The datum is identified as "Station 0.0", or "Sta. 0.0" for short. On american aircraft, these distances are measured in inches: "Sta.37" means that the associated position is located at 37 inches behind the reference datum.

 

3°) Arm (arm/bras): refers to the horizontal distance mentioned in 2° here above.

 

4°) Moment (moment/moment) the combined effect of a force, which in this case is the weight of any subpart, occupant, piece of baggage or of cargo, and its arm (its distance to the reference datum), produces a rotating force around the C. G. known as moment. The value of the moment is obtained by multiplying the considered weight by its arm. If the arm is expressed in inches, pounds are used to express the weight, the resulting moment being expressed in pounds-inches (lbs.-in.). The obtained value is divided by 1000 to simplify the further calculations with regard to the C.G. location. Let us assume that a weight of 165 lbs acts at Sta.40: this produces a moment of:

 

165 lbs x 40 in. = 6600 lbs. in.

6600 lbs. in. : 1000 = 6,6 lbs. in.

 

5°) Standard empty weight: this is the aircraft's empty weight, including non-useable fuel as well as the required engine and hydraulic oils (and other required fluids, if any), IN ITS STANDARD VERSION, as delivered by the manufacturer to the customer. Be aware that the maximum useful load reported in the POH is only valid for the standard empty weight: in reality. The maximum useful load can be significantly reduced when additional equipment has been fitted.

 

6°) Basic empty weight: this is the real aircraft's empty weight, including all possible additional equipment such as radio's, instruments, navaids, etc. The basic empty weight and the associated C.G. is indicated on the aircraft's Certificate of Airworthiness. Be aware that ONLY THESE OFFICIAL VALUES ARE TO BE CONSIDERED FOR WEIGHT AND BALANCE CALCULATIONS!!!

 

7°) Useful load: this the the load which can be taken on board without exceeding the maximum takeoff weight. Be aware the term "useful load" includes the occupants, their baggage, cargo, a variety of objects which do not appear in the basic empty weight (reserve oil cans, life-jackets, towbar, wheel shocks, etc.), and the fuel.

 

 

8°) Maximum takeoff weight (MTOW): this is the maximum structural weight upon releasing the brakes for takeoff. For some aircraft, a Maximum Ramp Weight is also published: this is the MTOW increased by a standard amount of fuel which is supposed to be consumed for engine start, taxi and engine run-up.

 

9°) Maximum landing weight (MLDW): this is the maximum structural weight upon touchdown. On many small aircraft, the MLDW equals the MTOW. Assuming that the MLDW would be lower than the MTOW, the actual value of the landing weight should also be calculated on basis of the basic empty weight, increased by the weight of the occupants, their baggage, etc., and the remaining fuel, i.e. the difference of the fuel on board at takeoff minus the trip fuel.

 

10°) Maximum zero fuel weight (MZFW): this is rarely encountered on light aircraft. Nonetheless, assuming that a MZFW is published, it also represents a structural limit. It is the maximum aircraft I s weight when loaded, but without the fuel, hence the term “zero fuel". If a MZFW is applicable, its purpose is to avoid that once the so-called traffic load is on board, i.e. within the fuselage, the fuselage does not exert an excessive load on the wings.

 

CAUTION: When one studies the examples regarding load and trim in the POR, note that every occupant is accounted for a standard weight of 170 lbs, i.e. about 77 kgs. Be aware that these are examples only: if this weight is applied de facto for an actual calculation, chances are that a light aircraft might be considerably overloaded, particularly if all seats are occupied by heavier persons and that, on top of it, baggage is carried. As far as light aircraft are concerned, it is thus imperative to realistically estimate the actual weight of each occupant (weighing each one would be an even better solution . . . . but this might be a little embarrassing when ladies are present). Furthermore, remember to use the basic empty weight, not the standard weight.

 

The flight-log features a "LOAD AND TRIM" rubric which should be filled before departure (in fact, the load and trim is supposed to be verified before every flight). With the previous definitions in mind, the various items are rather self-explanatory, but let us quickly review each of them nonetheless:

 

- The basic empty weight is the value appearing on the Certificate of Airworthiness associated to the aircraft involved.

 

- Add the weight of the pilot and passengers: remember the caution here above.

 

- Add the weight of the baggage and all other miscellaneous items: flight case, reserve oil cans, tow-bar, etc. and, during the preflight inspection, see to it that any junk which is often left in the cabin or in the baggage area is removed.

 

Note that the total weight so far is nothing else than the actual zero fuel weight which may or may not be a limiting factor: as said earlier, it usually is not. Note also that the difference between the MTOW and the actual zero fuel weight reflects the maximum fuel weight which can be loaded. Note finally the so­called traffic load is the total weight of the occupants, their baggage, the cargo if any, as well as of all other additional items such as towbar, wheel shocks, oil cans, etc.

- Add the weight of the fuel on board, remembering that 1 USG equals 6 lbs, or that 1 ltr equals 0,72 kgs. This latter value must obviously be at least equal to the fuel required.

 

- The sum of all previous items is the total takeoff weight, which may not exceed the maximum takeoff weight.

 

- The total takeoff weight is used to determine the location of the C.G. This is not done in an instant: one must mostly use a table in which the various weights and moments are calculated and added to the basic empty weight and its associate moment, which also appears on the C. of A.}. The final position of the C.G. is obtained by summing up all individual weights and moments, and verifying that both results fit into the center of gravity moment envelope published in the POH. The actual location of the enter of gravity can be determined on the associated center of gravity limits graph.

 

The presentation of the C.G. calculations varies somewhat from one aircraft type to another. Therefore, your instructor will review with you the graphs and/or tables associated to your training aircraft, which will be one of the major items of this briefing. Note that, as far as two-seaters are concerned, as long as the actual weight does not exceed the MTOW, the possibility that the C.G. is out of limits is rather remote. When more than two seats are involved, and particularly six-seaters such as the Piper Cherokee VI, chances for an off-limit C.G. are much more likely, even if the actual weight is way below the MTOW. Great care must thus be taken with such aircraft.

 

Let us complete this discussion about weight and C.G. with an example which, unfortunately, can be witnessed all too often:

 

- It is beautiful weather, it is Sunday and there are plenty of candidates for a short sight-seeing tour in the aeroclub's Cessna 172, model 1978, whose MTOW is 2300 lbs.

 

- The aircraft’s equipment is impressive, but implies that the basic empty weight mentioned in the C. of A. is 1504 lbs instead of the standard 1454 lbs.

 

- Considering the fact that a number of such flights is to be carried out, the pilot decides to fill the fuel tanks to full capacity: 43 USG, i.e. 258 lbs.

 

- The passengers don't carry any baggage on such short tours, nonetheless the baggage compartment contains some items which "are normally left there, just in case": perhaps same reserve oil cans , wheel shocks ; maybe a towbar, and often a lot of needless junk which is usually disregarded. A closer investigation would have revealed that all this material amounts to a total of 4 lbs.

 

- The pilot himself weighs a 85 kgs.

 

- It so happens that, for the first trip, three passengers of respectively 73L 86 and 83 kgs board the aircraft. The total weight of all occupants is thus:

 

85 + 73 + 86 + 83 = 327 kgs, i.e. 721lbs.

 

- The total weight of the aircraft on the ramp is thus:

 

1504 + 258 + 4 + 721 = 2487 lbs.

 

- The engine start, the taxi and the engine run-up consume 1,1USG, i.e. 6,6. lbs. The actual take of weight is thus:

 

2487 - 6,6 = 2480,4 lbs.

 

- The aircraft is thus overloaded by:

 

2480,4 - 2300 = 180,4 lbs.

 

If we express it in percentage, the overload is 7,84%. Assuming that those 7,84% would be applied to a medium commercial aircraft such as the Boeing 737-400, whose MTOW is 65090 kgs, it would equal an overweight of more than . . . . . 5103 kgs. Not one single airline pilot would be foolish enough to take off in such conditions. Still, when it comes to light aircraft, many pilots do not seem to care.

Admittedly assuming than the runway is excessively long, a light aircraft will usually become airborne without any clearly noticeable problem: the takeoff distance will be somewhat longer and the climb performance will be somewhat less than normal, particular if, on top of the overload, the OAT is fairly high. In addition, the strain on the engine and on the aircraft's structure is abnormally high and this, incidentally, is probably the most insidious phenomenon. Nonetheless, and as long as light single­engined aircraft are concerned, such carelessness is luckily rarely punished. If the engine fails, whether the aircraft is over­loaded or not, the usual reasoning is that a forced landing is to be carried out anyway, so what is the big deal? The big deal is that, if ever an incident of that nature happens, it might as well (and it did in the past) end up with considerable damage to the aircraft and harm to the passengers: during the subsequent enquiry, proof shall easily be given that the pilot in command has been squarely careless: he will be put on trial and probably be sentenced to the full responsibility of the outcome... which might cost a fortune (to himself... or to his family).

 

Takeoff and landing distances

 

The flight-log also includes a rubric “T/O DIST-LDG DIST", both with the minimum (MIN) and the available (AVAIL) distances. These must be calculated according to the method laid down earlier in lesson 30, and taking into consideration the prevailing conditions for takeoff and the forecasted conditions for landing. Although, for a light aircraft, this calculation is of rather academic nature when runways of 1500 m or more are available, remember that it might become vital on shorter runways, particularly grass runways, when wet and located at high elevations. But even on major airports, it might be necessary to use a short emergency strip: as far as landing at destination is concerned, it is then this one which must be taken into consideration rather than the long concrete runways.

 

Driftlines

 

Some instructors recommend to draw a fan of faint driftlines on the chart, usually 5°, 10° and 15° each side of the track, at the departure point as well as at each turning point. The purpose of these lines is that, once in flight, assuming that one passes for instance overhead a specific landmark located along the 10° left-hand driftline after say 15 minutes, it means that the aircraft has been drifted off to the left by 10° during that time lapse: a correction of 20° to the right should then be applied for another 15 minutes, after which the aircraft should be approximately back on the initial track and in order to remain on it, the correction of 20° should be reduced to 10°.

 

This system is not bad in itself but, one must be aware that it is possible that the initial track might not be rejoined before the next turning point. One way to take care of this is pick up the next heading exactly at the ETO, to add the same 20° correction to this new value, and to maintain this heading for the remainder of the 15 minutes (or until it is recognized that the aircraft is back on the required track).

 

In the next lesson, we will discuss another system, known as the one-in-sixty rule, whereby no driftlines are required, and likely to be more efficient, but which requires some additional calculations.

 

Notams

 

Before departure you must ensure that no important NOTAM's affect your route (this is the reason why, when planning the route on the chart, it is better to select tracks which avoid possible problem areas: failing to take these into consideration might force you to re-plan specific segments of the flight to make a new flight-log, and to re-adjust all your previous calculations).

Assuming that your airport of departure has no AIS, or that no NOTAM's are available for some reason, these can be obtained by telephone at Brussels-National Airport (02/7538414 or 02/7538415)

 

ATC flight-plan

 

Remember that every VFR navigation flight involving controlled zones or areas, as well as every international flight, requires an ATC flight-plan which must be introduced at least 30 minutes before departure, either via the local AIS, or directly to the adequate services at Brussels-National Airport. A copy of an ATC flight-plan will be found in annex to this lesson. The various items are to be filled in as follows:

 

- AIRCRAFT IDENTIFICATION: this is the registration number, DO-XXX;

 

- FLIGHT RULES: insert the letter "V" for "VFR"

 

- TYPE OF FLIGHT: insert the letter "G" for "General Aviation";

 

- NUMBER: this item refers to the number of aircraft in case of formation flight, and may be disregarded if only one single aircraft is involved;

 

- TYPE OF AIRCRAFT: insert the appropriate official ICAO designator, for instance CISO, C172, PA28, etc. (see your instructor for the correct designator of your training aircraft). If no such designator exists, insert ZZZZ and specify the type of aircraft preceded by TYP/ in OTHER INFORMATION (see below);

 

- WAKE TURBULENCE CATEGORY: insert the letter "L" for "Light";

 

- EQUIPMENT: relates to the radio and navaid equipment of the aircraft. Insert the letter "V” for "VHF". Although your aircraft might be equipped with ADF ("A”), VOR ("O”) and ILS ("L"), you are not yet qualified to use this equipment which consequently should not be inserted. Behind the "/" sign, information regarding the transponder equipment (see PILOT NOTE VI) is to be inserted as follows:

 

- letter "N" for "no transponder"

- cipher "2" for "transponder Mode A, 2 digits"

- cipher "4" for "transponder Mode A, 4 digits and no altitude reporting

- letter "C" for "transponder Mode C, 4 digits";

 

- DEPARTURE AERODROME: insert ICAO four-letter code. Assuming that no such code exists, insert ZZZZ and specify the name of the departure airport preceded by DEP/ in OTHER INFORMATION;

 

- TIME: insert the estimated off - block GMT time in four digits. Be aware that, for VFR flights, the actual departure time must not be later than 60 minutes after the filed time.

 

- CRUISING SPEED: should be expressed in knots. Insert the average cruise TAS, using four digits, preceded by the letter "N" for "knots" (e.g. N0098, for 98 kts);

 

- LEVEL: relates either to the cruising level or cruising altitude and should be inserted with three digits preceded by the letter "FL for "flight level”, or the letter "A" for "altitude". However, for VFR flights, whereby the cruising level or altitude is essentially depending on the cloud base, simply insert the letters "VFR";

 

- ROUTE: not required for VFR deduced reckoning navigation flights;

 

- DESTINATION AERODROME: insert ICAO four-letter code. Assuming that no such code exists, insert ZZZZ and specify the name of the destination preceded DEST/ in OTHER INFORMATION;

 

- TOTAL EET: to be expressed in for digits, as per flight-log;

 

- ALTN AERODROME and 2nd ALTN AERODROME: alternate airports. Not required for VFR operations;

 

- OTHER INFORMATION: insert O (zero) if no other information. For FIR boundaries, state EET/ followed by the four-letter code of the boundary and the estimated time of passage, again in GMT. The name of the operator may be indicate preceded by OPR/. Any other plain language remark should be preceded by RMK/;

 

- ENDURANCE: insert the fuel endurance in hours and minutes;

 

- PERSONS ON BOARD: self-explanatory. Insert TBN (to be notified) if the total number of persons is not known at the time of filing;

 

- PORTABLE EMERGENCY RADIO: cross out indicators of equipment which is not available on board (ELBA stands for Emergency Location Beacon Aircraft);

 

- S/ (for Survival Equipment): cross out all indicators if survival equipment is not available on board;

 

- J/ (for Jackets): cross out all indicators if life­jackets are not available on board. If they are, cross out only missing associated equipment;

 

- D/ (for dinghies): cross out indicators D and C (dinghies are inflatable life-boats, specially designed for commercial aircraft operating overseas);

 

- AIRCRAFT COLOR AND MARKINGS: describe as succinctly as possible;

 

- REMARKS: insert the letter "Nil for "no remarks”;

 

- PILOT-IN-COMMAND: insert the name of the pilot in command, normally your instructor's or, once in solo, your own.

 

- FILED BY: as is the case.

 

Customs and police

 

Assuming that your destination is in a foreign country, certainly outside the European Union, you are supposed to be cleared by both customs and police. This might involve an intermediate stop if these services are not available at the airport of departure. This must be checked with the local regulations and arrangements.

 

 

B.- FLIGHT TRAINING (Dual 00,00 h. - Total 21,30 h.)(Solo 00,00 h. - Total 09,00 h.)(Total D+S 30,30 h.)

 

Nil.

 

C.- QUESTIONARY

 

 

01. - (POH) State the average fuel consumption for engine start, taxi and run-up for your training aircraft. If no information is available in the POH, make your own calculation.

 

02. - (POH) You take off at MTOW from an airport located at a pressure altitude of 2000 ft. You intend to climb to FL 80. Calculate for your training aircraft:

 

a) the time to cruising level: ______

b) the fuel used since engine start: ______

c) the distance to reach the cruising level, assuming no wind: ______

 

03. - You measured a true track of 120° on your chart. The TAS is 100 mph. The distance is 80 kms and the w/v is 010°/15 kts. The variation is 4°W. Calculate:

 

a) the magnetic heading: _____°

b) the drift: _____°

c) the drift correction: _____°

d) the groundspeed: _____ kts

e) the EET: _____

 

 

04. - What do you understand by center of gravity?

 

05. - The aircraft's longitudinal stability increases when: a) the C.G. moves forward, b) the C.G. moves aft.

 

06. - (POH) State the location of the reference datum of your training aircraft.

 

07. - The moment/1000 equals 109 Ibs. in. for a weight of 2300 lbs. The location of the C.G. aft of datum is ______ inches.

 

08. - (POH) State the maximum fore and aft limits of the C.G., for your training aircraft.

 

09. - State the difference between standard empty weight and basic empty weight.

 

10. - (POH) State for your training aircraft:

MTOW = __________  lbs, or __________ kgs

MLDW  = __________ lbs, or __________ kgs

MZFW  = __________ lbs, or __________ kgs

Maximum Ramp Weight = __________ lbs, or __________ kgs

 

11. - What is the difference between traffic load and useful load?

 

12. - What is the purpose of a MZFW, if any?

 

13. - In the C. of A., you find: a) the standard empty weight and associated C.G., b) the basic empty weight and associated C.G.

 

14. - 1 USG of fuel = __________ lbs, or __________ kgs.

 

15. - You drew driftlines on your chart. The calculated magnetic heading is 090°. The EET to the first turning point, at which you must pick up a new heading of 060°, is 18 minutes. After 12 minutes, you notice that you are 5° right of track. Explain your actions to rejoin the required track.

 

16. - The ATC flight-plan form mentions the term ELBA in the item related to the portable emergency radio. What does it stand for?

 

17. - What is a dinghy?

 

18. - The ATC flight-plan should be introduced at least __________ before departure.

 

19. - An ATC flight-plan is required for all VFR navigations. True or false?

 

20. - For VFR flights, the actual time of departure must be not later than __________ after the time filed on the ATC flightplan form.

 

 

 

A.- BRIEFING (02,00 h. - Total 35,30 h.)

 

GENERAL ADVICES AND PRECAUTIONS

 

01.- Before starting the engine, you should check the compass deviation card on board of the aircraft and fill in the rubric C.H. (Compass Heading) on the flight-log for the various route segments.

 

02.- Before starting the engine, make sure that all required navigation tools are available on board: charts, computer, protractor, drawer, watch, meteorological information, airport planviews (particularly if major or regional airports are involved), as well as a copy of the ATC flight-plan, if any. Note that pilots needing corrective glasses must carry a reserve set along. Note also that, for flights to foreign countries, a copy of the aircraft's insurance contract must be on board in addition to the usual required documents.

 

03.- It is also strongly recommended to use a pencil and an eraser (no ballpoint pen) for filing the flight-log during flight, in order to avoid making a complete mess of it if corrections are required. Also ensure that all required items are stowed in an orderly manner, so that you can reach them easily without calling upon the help of your passengers. This is a matter of "cockpit management" which might require a little previous study, particularly in the restricted space of a light aircraft cabin. Note that during flight, you may use the glare-shield above the instrument panel as a "desk", provided that no severe turbulence is expected and that it does not impair the look-out, but it must remain clear of any object during takeoff and landing procedures.' Furthermore, no metal objects (except for aluminium tools), and certainly no headsets. should ever be placed in the vicinity of the magnetic compass.

 

04.- A watch is of course one of the major tools for navigation: ensure that yours is set to the correct time (which can be requested by RIT upon asking the taxi clearance) and that it is properly wound up. Assuming that the instrument panel includes an operative clock, adjust it to GMT (Greenwich Mean Time).

 

05.- Many airports are fitted with an ATIS (in Belgium, this is at present only the case in Brussels-National, on frequency 132,47 MHz. Assuming that a ATIS is available (it is mentioned on the airport's planview), select the adequate frequency on the VHF before starting the engine, simply listen to it and write its most important contents on the flight-log, together with its designator, Alpha, Bravo, Charlie, or whichever). Once this is done, start the engine as usual and formulate the request for taxi clearance as follows: "Brussels Ground, this is OO-XXX, at General Aviation Terminal, information Sierra request taxi". Note that on major airports, it is always advisable to request a start-up clearance before actually starting the engine. Be aware that if the destination airport is fitted with an ATIS, the procedure is similar: listen out when in reception range, note on the flight-log, thence switch to the adequate ATC frequency, e. g. "Brussels Approach, this is OO-XXX, information Sierra, request clearance to join your traffic circuit".

 

06.- Upon starting the engine, note the "OFF" time on the BLOCK AND FLT. TIMES rubric of the flight-log. This is particularly important if there is no time totalizer on board. Assuming that there is one, note its indication instead.

07.- Taxiing on an unknown big regional or major airport is not always easy, and one could very well inadvertently enter an active runway with all possible sorry consequences. Check your planview as soon as you know which runway is in use (possibly even before boarding the aircraft). The same problem might also happen after landing. At any rate, whenever you have the slightest doubt. do not hesitate to request "taxi guidance" by radio from the ATC!!!

 

08.- Assuming that a directional gyro (D.G.) is available, you are of course allowed to use it during navigation flights. Read again lesson 09 in this concern. The D.G. must be set in accordance with the magnetic compass after the engine start and, after taxiing to the holding point, it should still be more or less in correspondence with the magnetic compass. Remember however the existence of compass deviations: because of these, the D.G. should be carefully re-aligned with the compass when the aircraft is lined up for takeoff (giving time to the compass to stabilize), and furthermore, it should be re-adjusted with the compass after each turning point.

09.- Unless you intend to begin the navigation overhead the departure airport or at a VFR exit point, do not forget to note the takeoff time on the flight-log. Do this when you receive the takeoff clearance. If a stopwatch is available, either your own, or on the instrument panel, take the habit to start it upon the moment you open the throttle: this might be helpful if you proceed directly on course and forget to note the takeoff time.

10.- Once you are established on course to the first turning point (possibly a VFR exit point), whether climbing or in cruise, as soon as conditions permit, note the ETO's, i.e. the estimated time over the various check- and turning points on the flight - log, by adding the calculated EET' s to the previously noted actual departure time. Assuming that turbulence hinders you, try to note at least the first two or three ETO' s, and complete the job later on, when smoother conditions prevail.

 

11.- It is not because you selected a number of checkpoints on the flight-log for timing purposes that you must disregard the other ground features: quite the contrary, you would be well advised to constantly keep track of your progress, and particularly during the first stages of the navigation as well as after passing each turning point. This allows to make minor heading corrections in order to follow the required track as exactly as possible. Furthermore, it allows you to ensure that no capital error has happened, either in the pre-flight calculations, such 180° in the of the an a error measurement . required track (it happened before) or, if the compass is of the grid steering system (still found on many aircraft initially certified in the U.K., and in which case the instructor must ensure that you know how to handle it), because of a 1800 error in the interpretation of the compass's reading (which also happened before).

12.- As far as map reading is concerned, features which you notice on the ground are not necessarily indicated on the chart but, unless it would be hopelessly outdated, the chart always reflects existing ground features. Because of this, it is preferable to compare the chart with the ground instead of the other way around. This, of course, does not mean that you should not locate any characteristic landmark that you might encounter along your route. Many instructors recommend to hold the chart in the flight direction. Doing so provides indeed a better comparison with the landscape and, in some circumstances it might really prove helpful, but on the other hand, this also implies that one might have to hold the chart (and the related texts) upside down, a fact which is not always appraised: let's say that holding the chart in the flight direction becomes more commendable when it comes to find an objective which is not prominent.

 

13.- Remember that during navigation flights, once the aircraft is established in cruise, the mixture must be adjusted as recommended in the POH. If it mentions both best power and best economy settings, the latter should normally be used for cruise, while best power is required for climbing at higher altitudes. However, remember also that the mixture control should be left in full rich position as long as the engine power exceeds 75%.

14.- Each time that you positively recognize and pass over a pre-selected checkpoint or turning point, note the actual time at which you pass the point in the associated ATO (Actual Time Over) column. Assuming that the difference between the ATO and the ETO is significant (meaning more than three minutes), and that no noticeable heading or speed change occurred because of ATC requirements or other reasons, there is clearly a hitch somewhere in the pre-departure calculations. This does not mean that these where necessarily wrong but, as said earlier, they were only approximations, and a wind change is the most likely reason for the discrepancy. At any rate, whichever the reason for the delay or the gain, a rectified ETO, or RETO, should be noted in the associated column for the subsequent checkpoints. These RETO's can be more or less guessed by adding or substracting the difference to the following ETO's, but the most efficient way is to calculate them all over again. This is where the flight-log's rubric "distance point-to-point" (P.P.) comes in handy: let us assume that 14 minutes are required to cover a distance of 20 nms, and that the distance to the following landmark is 12 nms. It will thus be reached after 8,4 minutes (say 9 minutes). And if the remaining distance (REM) is 105 nms, about 74 minutes will be required to reach the destination. Such calculations are easily solved on the computer, but see also the table in annex to this lesson. Incidentally, if the prevailing winds are different from the forecasted ones I there will not only be a difference in groundspeed I but almost certainly also a difference in heading: the aircraft will drift somewhat left or right of track. This is where the previously drawn driftlines can be helpful unless the one-in-sixty rule (see below) is preferred.

 

 

15.- When the destination is difficult to be identified, such as a small grass strip lost in the middle of surrounding meadows, or when the objective is a forlorn spot such as  castle, a small factory, a monument, or whichever in the middle of nowhere, one might easily pass slightly abeam without noticing it, even in perfect visibility conditions. In such a case, it is recommended to plan the route to the nearest possible, but unmistakable landmark, even if it is located somewhat away from the direct trac , from where the final run to the objective is initiated, using a large scale map (which must not necessarily be an aeronautical chart) and the final EET is calculated.

 

16.- Assuming that the objective has not been identified upon the ETO, it cannot possibly be far away I and perhaps you are retarded somewhat by an unexpected headwind: maintain the heading for just a few minutes, preferably until you are over a clearly distinct landmark, at which moment, if needed, you can begin a systematic search without loosing sight of the last position. Perform a fairly wide turn to one side, coming back over the last point, followed by a similar turn to the other side. If still no result, recommence using a larger turning radius. However, during such procedure, remain aware of your fuel status and reduce power to maximum endurance! Conditions permitting, remember that climbing to a higher altitude may help you to locate the objective. At any rate, the resulting circle of incertitude is very small and the search procedure should rapidly lead to proper identification. If your search remains unsuccessful for some reason, return to the last en route point and, either return to your departure airport, or divert to another one BEFORE YOU ARE TOO LOW ON FUEL.

 

17.- If your destination is an airfield with no radio facility, one cannot emphasize strongly enough the need for lookout. AND PARTICULARLY WHEN MIXED TRAFFIC OF AIRCRAFT AND GLIDERS IS IN PROGRESS. The airfield must be overflown at a safe height, and the signal area must be circled to carefully note the various instructions: which is the landing direction? is it a right hand or a left hand circuit? are there glider flights in progress? where is the wind coming from? Again, while doing so, don't get fixated on that signal area: STAY AWARE OF OTHER AIRCRAFT FLYING IN THE VICINITY! TAKE YOUR TIME. EVEN IF IT COSTS A FEW MORE MINUTES!!! Once all these things have been properly established, descend to the normal circuit height, i.e. ±1000 ft AGL. Remember that you have no information regarding the local QNH or QFE so that the actual circuit height is somewhat of an estimation. And be aware that if the airfield is located at say 2000 ft above the sea level, the altimeter should indicate something like 3000 ft thing around 3000 ft when at circuit height. Join the circuit in crossleg and complete it in the usual way. If you have doubts regarding possible obstructions in the vicinity, such as wires and cables, maintain the circuit height and fly one, two or three more patterns to study the situation more closely before initiating the final approach, very much like the precautionary landing procedure, except for the fact that you don’t need to make low passes to check the suitability of the landing area.

 

 

18.- We emphasized it already before: during a navigation flight (or any other flight for that matter), an engine failure is eminently improbable, but not impossible. Keep looking around for possible landing places during the whole journey, and keep mentally track of the wind on the ground surface by watching possible factory smokes or others. Keep also track of airfields available in your immediate vicinity in case a technical problem of some kind would show up.

 

19.- Finally, do not forget the need for accurate flying: as far as the navigation is concerned, we stressed already the need for maintaining the required heading accurately: not within 10°, not within 5°, not within 1°, but EXACTLY at least, this is what all, us pilots, must aim for. And this remains equally true for the altitude and for the airspeed: EXACT VALUES ARE REOUIRED. The day that you decide to give up on this goal, abandon aviation altogether!!! Certainly if you wish to become more than a VFR free-time pilot!!!

 

FLYING THE REVERSE TRACK

 

It may happen that (due to deteriorating weather or to a situation as described here above) you are compelled to turn back to your departure point. This must be done systematically, even if, at the moment of your decision, you are not absolutely sure of your actual position:

 

1°) Assuming that the track to your destination is 050° true, the track return to your departure point (or to the last turning point) is consequently 230° true (050° + 200° - 20°, or alternatively 050° - 200° + 20°, use the easiest way);

 

2°) Assuming that the true heading toward your destination is 045°, the drift correction is - 5°, i.e. 5° to the left;

 

3°) As the drift correction was to the left during the outbound journey, it must be to the right for the return trip, i.e. the true heading to return is 230° + 5° = 235°,

 

4°) Correct the true heading for the prevailing variation, thence check the compass deviation card to obtain the compass heading to return ( . . . . . and reset the D.G accordingly);

 

5°) The problem of the return heading being solved, the question is now the groundspeed, which usually will be different, unless the wind blows at right angles to the track, and which you need in order to know when you will reach the various turning points, or at least be in their immediate vicinity. A first possibility it to guess it (using again the table in annex), in the knowledge that if you have a headwind component on the way down, you will have tailwind component on the way back. A second possibility is to make again the calculations on the computer after having picked up the return heading (at least if weather conditions permit). In fact, the easiest way is to anticipate the problem, and to calculate all the required parameters peacefully on the ground, before departure, i.e. to make a second flight-log in view of a possible return, preferably using maximum range/endurance power setting to spare fuel.

 

THE ONE-IN-SIXTY RULE

 

We mentioned already the use of driftlines as a help to rejoin the track when needed. Another way is the one-in-sixty rule which is probably more efficient, but which requires a good deal of mental calculations and it is well known that even the easiest mental calculation on the ground often becomes somewhat of a serious problem when combined with flying the aircraft. At any rate, the system is based on the same basic principle than the driftlines, but also to the fact that if the aircraft drifts off by 1 nm over a distance of 60 nms, the drift equals 1°. This leads to the relation:

 

             X        distance off track

           ------  =   -----------------      (1) or:

             60         distance flown

 

           X x distance flown = 60 x distance off track       (2), or: 

 

                   60 x distance off track

          X =     -----------------------         (3)

                        distance flown

 

Considering relation (3), let us assume that a distance of 24 nms has been covered in 14 minutes, and that the aircraft is 3 nms right of the required track, the drift is:

 

3 x 60

------- = 7, 5 (say 8°)

   24

 

A correction of 16° to the left is required for a duration of 14 minutes to rejoin the track, after which a correction of 8° to the right (or reducing the correction by half) is required to stay on it.

 

Another example: a distance of 40 nms has been covered in 24 minutes, and the aircraft is 2 nms left of track, the drift is:

 

2 x 60

------- = 3° to the left

   40

 

Thus, one must correct by 6° to the right for a duration of 24 minutes, then by 3° to the left.

 

 

However, the most interesting part of the one-in-sixty rule is that is allows to calculate the required correction to proceed directly to the destination (or turning point)  assuming that you are at 30 nms from the departure point and at 20 nms from the destination, and 3 nms left of track, the drift is:

 

3 x 60

------- = 6° to the left

   30

 

Correcting by 6° to the right gives way to paralleling the required track. In order to proceed directly to the destination, using now the distance remaining, we have:

 

3 x 60

------- = 9°

  20

 

In this case, the total correction to be applied is 6° + 9° = 15° to the right.

 

UNEXPECTED HEADING CHANGES

 

Unexpected heading changes are always possible, for instance to circumnavigate an area of bad weather, because you do not receive a clearance to cross a CTR or, when flying in a controlled area, because the ATC requests you to pick up heading so and so. In all these cases, it is imperative to keep track as closely as possible of your position.

 

Assuming that it becomes necessary to circumnavigate an area for some reason, never do this by means of a wavering circular track: this is the best way to get hopelessly lost, particularly over a region which is unknown to you. Use a succession of straight lines instead, i.e. a succession of well determined headings, and choose these in such a way that you definitely avoid the involved area. Whether for circumnavigation purposes, or because you are instructed to do so by the ATC, always note every successive heading on the flight-log (or on any other piece of-paper if necessary), and note as well the elapsed time on each one. Furthermore, remain aware of your TAS (unless the wind would be absolutely calm, the groundspeed will vary anyway), and the approximative distance it produces in one minute in no wind conditions (for instance, for a TAS of 110 kts, this distance is somewhat less than 2 nms (1,83 nms to be correct, but OK). Try also to estimate the influence of the wind. These precautions, in combination with map-reading, allow you to make at least a rudimentary assessment of the track followed during this procedure, and ultimately to estimate a heading to your final destination or, if needed, to an intermediate turning point, with some degree of accuracy, taking into consideration the estimated present position and groundspeed. Obviously, if you are able to positively identify your present position, your estimations for the remainder of the flight will be much more correct. And don't forget that, if you are in radar contact, you always can request for additional assistance.

 

DIVERTING TO ANOTHER AIRPORT

 

Let us assume that the general weather conditions along the route deteriorate to such an extend that you are compelled to descend to the MSA and that, on top of it, the visibility gradually decays. Three golden must always be kept in mind:

 

1°) Never fly below the MSA;

 

2°) Never push your luck by continuing to the intended destination when the visibility becomes questionable;

 

3°) Never wait until it is too late before deciding to go back, or to divert to another airport where VMC conditions still prevail.

 

Assuming that you are still on the required track, and that you passed a suitable airfield a few minutes ago, it is relatively easy to determine your actual position on the chart and to turn back for landing there (see "Flying the reverse track”). If, on the other hand, you wish to divert to an airport located significantly off your route, you can estimate fairly accurately the current true heading on the chart: do not forget to take care of both the variation and the deviation, note the time, and steer this new heading without hesitation. Using the average wind reported on the flight-log, you can apply an estimated drift correction . . . and you are on your way. The most important is done: you flyaway from the problem area and you are safe. You are now in a position to estimate the distance from the point of diversion to the alternate, as well as the EET. If weather conditions permit, you can even verify your findings by drawing a line on the chart, taking the necessary measurements (something which, in all frankness, is usually easier to say than to do) and find the actual track, heading and groundspeed values, using your computer. But caution!!! Doing all these measurements and calculations are all very well, but THE MAIN POINT IS TO SAFELY FLY THE AIRCRAFT!!! All the rest is of secondary importance.

 

LOST??

The worst fear of many student pilots is to loose their way during a navigation over unknown country. In fact, such thing is hardly possible if you prepared the flight with the required care, that you are able to maintain a heading correctly, that you keep track of time, and that you don't panic if ever you miss a pre-determined checkpoint. As long as you stick to the previously mentioned recommendations and precautions, the worst that might happen (and will probably happen at times) is that you are uncertain on your position, a situation which may happen to anyone, including to your instructor, and which is somewhat annoying at most. Let’s say that the main hazard is to inadvertently enter a CTR, a danger area, or anything similar: this, of course, can be prevented by the use of the VHF radio, as we shall see.

 

 

As was mentioned earlier, the pre-flight calculations are approximations, and one must be prepared to the fact that, despite the most accurate flying technique, the aircraft may drift off somewhat to the left or to the right, and/or that the groundspeed may be somewhat higher or lower than the pre-calculated value. Therefore "missing”  checkpoint, although not very pleasant, does not mean that you are lost: perhaps you passed right overhead without noticing it because of a higher than expected groundspeed, perhaps it will show up a few minutes later because the aircraft moves slower than expected, perhaps you did not see it because you passed slightly abeam. Any combination is possible, but one basic fact remains: even if the wind is significantly different of the forecasted value, it is unlikely that you are very far away from the required track if you correctly maintain the (successive) pre-calculated heading(s). and that you stick to the EET's to the various turning points (unless you made a colossal error in your calculations which happens, and which is why you better crosscheck and re-check your calculations before departure) . Again, if a checkpoint fails to show up at the EET, no panic! Maintain the heading unchanged if it is just a checkpoint along a route segment: it (or any subsequent one) will probably show somewhat later, perhaps somewhat to the left or to the right, or perhaps even dead ahead. If the missed checkpoint happens to be a turning point, steer the subsequent pre-calculated heading and wait: sooner or later you will encounter a recognizable landmark from where you can knowingly apply an adequate correction.

 

What must be avoided at all cost is to inadvertently wander away from the heading while desperately comparing the chart with the landscape in an attempt to find that checkpoint! You missed it? Forget it, or at least don't worry too much about it! BUT WATCH THAT COMPASS!!! And above all, do not begin circling or make roundabouts without a clearly recognizable reference point "to see where you are". Beware of the often erroneous "impression to recognize something” which is significantly away from the actual track, and which is also likely to give way to a serious blunder: having missed a specific checkpoint, one steers towards that "something which seems to be it" instead of maintaining the original heading: one believes to recognize the landscape and tends to fly in a direction which "feels correct" . . . . . but which is not in the least related to the calculated heading. These, indeed, are various ways to get. hopelessly lost, and particularly if the visibility is less than it should be.

 

Another mistake you must beware of: you are unsure of your position, you encounter a crosssection of highways, and after comparing with the chart, you believe that this or that specific highway will lead you to your destination. It may be so. . . . . . but if you decide to follow it, crosscheck the direction of this highway with your heading (there are plenty of highways in Belgium, and it is all to easy to follow the wrong one . . . ).

 

At any rate, in the unlikely case that you would be completely and utterly lost, remember what has been said with regard to precautionary landings: don't keep searching your way until you are short of fuel, or until darkness sets in. However, before deciding for this rather extreme option, and assuming that you have VHF radio on board, remember that you can make use of the 121,50 MHz emergency frequency, as explained in PILOT NOTE V.

 

USING THE VHF AND THE TRANSPONDER

 

Assuming that your aircraft is fitted with VHF (and that you are familiar with this equipment), never hesitate to call FIC when flying in non- controlled area: for the whole of the Belgian territory, this is "Brussels Information", on 126,90 MHz. Assuming for instance a flight from Antwerp/Deurne to Liège/ Bierset, and that you are about to leave the Antwerp CTR, the radio transmissions should be as follows:

 

AIR.- "Antwerp Tower, O-XX leaving your zone”

 

ATC.- "O-XX, roger, clear to leave frequency”

 

AIR.- "O-XX, roger, switching to 126.9”

 

Assuming that you don't know the frequency of Brussels FIC, ask it:

 

AIR.- “O-XX, roger, confirm the frequency of Brussels Information"

 

Anyway, you switch to 126,9 MHz and:

 

AIR.- "Brussels Information, this is OO-XXX"

 

FIC.- "O-XX, this is Brussels Information, go ahead”

 

AIR. - "O-XX, from Antwerp to Liège, 2000 ft on QNH 1018, on course to Herenthals estimated at . . . . . , next Hasselt at . . . . . .”

 

Thus, as soon as the contact is established, you pass your message, using your (shortened) call sign, airport of departure and arrival, the altitude and the QNH on which your altimeter is set, your general flight direction using major towns or cities to this purpose, even if you do not intend to pass exactly overhead (in this concern, keep in mind the term "abeam", e.g. "abeam" HerenthaIs (opzij van Herenthals/travers de Herenthals), the ETO, and preferably also the next important point along the route, as well as its ETO.

 

After this initial clarification, and assuming that you have a transponder (see PILOT NOTE VI), the FIC might ask you to select it:

 

FIC.- "O-XX, squawk " . . . . . , to which you reply: "O-XX, roger, squawk " . . . . . . You select the transponder to the required code and, if available, the altitude reporting mode as well. After a few moments, FIC confirms:

 

 

FIC.- "O-XX, identified (you are identified on the radar screen), clear to proceed, regional QNH is ____ mb". You acknowledge this-message, and adjust your altimeter to the regional QNH which may vary somewhat from the local QNH of Antwerp. When you pass Herenthals:

 

AIR. - "Brussels Information, O-XX, passing Herenthals, 2000 ft on QNH . . . . . , on course to Hasselt estimated at, next Liège at . . . . . ."

 

Assuming that weather conditions are adequate, and assuming that the aircraft is indeed equipped with transponder, you might as well have asked to climb to say FL 70 after the initial contact:

 

AIR. - "O-XX, request clearance to climb to FL 70”

 

FIC. - "O-XX, stand by". FIC verifies with Brussels Approach whether or not your request can be accepted, thence:

 

FIC.- "O-XX, you are clear to climb to FL 70, squawk

. . . . . and switch over to Brussels Departure on 126,62".

 

AIR. - "O - XX, roger, climbing to FL 70 and 126,62". You select the required transponder code and ALT, switch to 126,62, thence:

 

AIR. - "Brussels Departure, this is OO-XXX, climbing to FL 70 on course to Herenthals, squawk ______”.

ATC.- "O-XX, roger, radar contact". With the words "radar contact", Brussels departure notifies you that you are positively identified and that, as long as you are on frequency 126,62, there is no need for further position reports. Your reply should simply be: "O-XXI roger".

 

It is obvious that the weather conditions must be close to unlimited VMC to climb in a controlled area such as a TMA, and particularly to such high levels: be aware that once a specific one has been obtained and that you reached it, you are not allowed to leave it without permission of the ATC. As you are confined to VFR operations, you must be absolutely sure that the cloud base will be no problem (and fact is that such weather conditions are unfortunately rather exceptional in our countries). At any rate, you must remain watchful in this regard and, if necessary, to request descent IN DUE TIME if the weather should unexpectedly deteriorate . . . . . unless you left the controlled area in the meantime and that you have again the free choice of your cruising altitude.

 

Note that upon leaving a controlled area, such as the Brussels TMA, the ATC will usually revert you back to the FIC or to any other suitable frequency. Assuming that the ATC forgets about you (you are no longer a problem in the area anyway), request yourself the clearance to switch over to FIC, which will be gladly provided.

 

Note also that, as long as you are within a controlled area, you must keep listening carefully to the radio transmissions: the controller can call upon you at any time to steer a specific heading or to impose some other kind of change.

 

Remember the expression "unable to " . . . for the case that the ATC requires you to change heading or to climb to a higher level, and that this might lead you in IMC: in such a case, the controller will offer an alternative.

 

Coming back to the communications with the FIC, you might hear the expression "no traffic reported”. Be aware that this does by no means signify that there is no air traffic on your route! Indeed, in a non-controlled area it is possible that a number of non-radio equipped aircraft (or balloons) are present, or aircraft whose pilots neglect to use their radio. This expression is typical for a FIC frequency and look-out remains essential. Note however that this is equally true when "radar contact” is confirmed when VMC prevails in a controlled area!!!

 

Communications with Brussels Information are only possible when the aircraft is not too far from Brussels, or that is at an adequate altitude, which is why flying high is always commendable. Assuming that your position is somewhere over the Ardennes at 1000 or 2000 ft AGL, it is most probable that you will be out of range. However, this does not mean that you must disregard R/T transmissions: assuming that your call remains unanswered, use the so-called blind transmission method as follows:

AIR.- "Brussels Information, this is OO-XXX transmitting blind (for a blind transmission, always use your full call sign), from St-Hubert to Antwerp, 4000 ft on QNH, on course to Charleroi estimated at _____, next Dendermonde at _____, O-XX out"

Complete each blind transmission by "a-XX out" to confirm the end of the transmission. The advantage of such a blind transmission is that, although you have no contact with the FIC, other pilots flying along your route are likely to hear your call: they can make their presence and altitude known to you on the same frequency, for instance:

 

"OO-XXX, this is OO-YYY, over Marche, 4000 ft on QNH _____, on course to St-Hubert estimated at _____", to which you should reply:

 

"O-YY, O-XX copied OK"

 

Doing so allows a form of "self-control", at least until the moment that the contact with FIC can finally be established, and significantly improves flight safety. Being in non-controlled airspace, you can do whatever you want, in this case possibly climbing or descending by 500 ft or more to avoid staying at the same altitude as the other aircraft, and notify the pilot about your do’s and don’ts.

 

 

A number of further possibilities of VHF and transponder are described in PILOT NOTES V and VI. Read them and answer the related questions. One last thing: you will soon notice that there is quite some difference between the aridity of the messages as they are published in the regulations and most courses, and the actual way in which radio communications are conducted. Despite the fact that messages must be kept as short and concise as possible (of course without affecting their readability), don't be afraid to add a "good morning", “good afternoon", “goodbye", “thank you", or whatever. The relationship between pilots and controllers should remain one of friendly and efficient cooperation at all times.

 

 

B.- FLIGHT TRAINING (Dual 00,00 h. - Total 21,30 h.)(Solo 00,00 h. - Total 09,00 h.)(Total D+S 30,30 h.)

 

Nil

 

 

C. - QUESTIONARY

 

 

01. - Assuming a true heading of 037°, a variation of 2°W and a deviation of 1°E, the compass heading is ____°

 

02. - The compass deviations are published in the POH. True or false?

 

03. - Which additional document is required to be on board for international flights?

 

04. - When should the glare-shield above the instrument panel be free of any object?

 

05. - You put a headset in the close vicinity of the magnetic compass. What is the result?

 

06. - Assuming that the departure airport features an ATIS, and that the information is "Golf", formulate your request for taxi clearance (or to start the engine).

 

07. - You are on the ground at a major airport, and you are unsure of the way to be followed during taxi. You wish to be helped by the ATC. Formulate this request.

 

08. - Why is it particularly important to note the navigation departure time on the flightlog?

 

09. - The aircraft's clock should normally be set to: a) local time, b) to GMT.

 

10. - GMT stands for ______________________________________________.

 

11. - You steer a compass heading of 225° in order to follow a true track of 235°. The variation is - 3°. The deviation is +2°. Calculate the compass heading to reverse track, knowing that, in this case the deviation is +3°.

 

12. - The objective of your navigation is a small remotely located grass strip which is difficult to identify. What is the best way to handle this situation?

 

13. - After 15 minutes flight time, you notice that you covered 25 nms along the route, but that you are 4 nms off track. What is the drift?

 

14. - After 17 minutes flight time, you notice that you covered 32 nms, but that you are 3 nms off track. The next turning point is 19 nms away. By how many degrees to the left or to the right should you alter your heading to go directly to the turning point?

 

15. - You notice that you covered 15 nms in 9 minutes. What is your groundspeed?

 

16. - You must fly around a CTR because you have no clearance to cross it. State the best way to do this.

 

17. - You are practically on track but, upon the pre-calculated ETO, you fail to see your objective (or destination). What do you do?

 

18. - You are in the process of a systematic search for your objective. Which precaution is required in order to keep the fuel consumption as low as possible?

 

19. - You approach the destination airfield. There is no radio. State your way of action.

 

 

 

 

 

 

Preliminary note:

 

Being able to navigate safely and to travel to any destination is in fact the ultimate goal of the elementary flight training.

 

There are plenty of airports and smaller airfields in Belgium, and it is impossible to visit all of them within the allotted flight time of the elementary flight training program. A choice has to be made so that the student gets the most possible variation during his comparatively short navigation training. This choice is left to the instructor, taking into consideration the location and the nature of the home base. It is strongly recommended that, for students whose home base features concrete runways, destinations to smaller grass fields should mainly be choosen, and vice-versa. Similarly, if the home base is located in the lower flat regions of the country, at least one journey to the higher Ardennes should be planned to acquaint the student with a hilly environment.

 

According to the flight training program, a total of 12 hours is expected for navigation purposes. It is suggested to subdivide these 12 hours in a first rather short up and down journey not exceeding 01,30 hours in total (the purpose of the present lesson), then a somewhat longer return flight including a landing at two different destinations, not exceeding 03/30 hours in total, a third return flight not exceeding 05/00 hours in total, and including a landing at two or more destinations, and finally a last return flight, not exceeding 02,00 hours in total, to a destination X, but including a course reversal, a circumnavigation exercise and a diversion to another field. The flight routes shown in parenthesis in this and the subsequent lessons are obviously valid for students based in Antwerp/Deurne and are at any rate only suggestions).

After the obtention of the national private pilot licence, it is strongly recommended that the newly qualified pilot would visit as many as possible of the remaining airports, particularly the smaller “problem" airfields, but also Brussels-National (unless he has already been there during his dual training) under the supervision of a more experienced pilot, or preferably an instructor acting as passenger so that, besides the benefit of further systematic training, particularly with regard to circumnavigation procedures and diversions, these flights may nonetheless be logged as pilot in command.

 

Your instructor will arrange your navigation training as he sees fit, taking into consideration the average cruising speed of your training aircraft (Which usually is about 100kts) and the location of your home base in relation to other airfields. Except for the very first navigation whose preparation will mainly be conducted during the previous theoretical briefings, the instructor will inform you in due time about the destination(s) for the subsequent training flights: this should enable you to perform the first part of the preparation at home. Nonetheless, never hesitate to call upon your instructor if you have any doubts regarding the most suitable routing. It is recommended to always make two copies of the flight-log, one for yourself, and one for your instructor to refer to during flight.

 

Remember also that, unless your aircraft is not VHF/transponder equipped, you should always plan your cruising altitude (and the fuel calculations) in relation to the distance to be covered, despite the fact that you might be compelled to fly much lower because of weather conditions.

 

A.- BRIEFING (01,00 h. - Total 36,30 h.)

 

(Flight EBAW-EBKH-EBAW)

 

It is probable that the flight to this first destination has been discussed during the theoretical navigation briefings and that consequently the flight-log has already been prepared. Besides the navigation preparation itself, your instructor will once again closely watch your preflight checks, i.e. the external inspection and the execution of the various checklists.

 

This is basically a very short journey for which extensive meteorological coverage is not really needed. Particularly if the weather conditions are sunny and known to stay like that for the next few days, there can hardly be a problem: all you need in fact are the forecasted winds and temperatures at your cruising altitude as well as, at least if these are available (which will not be the case for EBKH: Balen - Keiheuvel), the METAR’S and TAF’s of both your departure point and destination.

 

Note that if your destination is a small private airfield such as EBKH, you could always pass a phone call to obtain the prevailing weather conditions and, at the same time, any other additional information such as whether glider flying or parachuting is in progress or, particularly in wintertime, whether the airfield is open to air traffic (remember that the status and details regarding private airfields are usually not mentioned in the NOTAM’S, and it would be a little stupid to go there to find out that the place is closed).

Nonetheless, whether necessary or not, play it safe and, before meeting your instructor for this flight session, obtain as much as possible weather information and NOTAM's for the journey.

 

Knowing the forecasted winds, you will now calculate the magnetic heading(s) and groundspeed(s) for both the way up and back (recall that the compass heading(s) can only be determined once on board of the aircraft). You will also perform the fuel and load and trim calculations for both legs. Finally, you will verify the landing and takeoff distances ' as explained in lesson 29.

 

Remember also that landing fees might have to be paid, except on the smaller privately owned airfields, and on your own home base for which a subscription usually prevails. The amount of the landing fees is reported in the AIP.

 

Once on board, verify the various compass headings.

 

Think about verifying your own watch and. if an on-board clock is available set it to GMT (recall that you can always request the correct time by radio).

 

If needed, your instructor will provide you with advices as to how and where to stow your navigation gear so that you can reach any item during flight without needing any assistance. This may seem a minor detail, but be aware that, once you will fly with passengers, it is most unpractical to require the "help" of somebody who is completely unknowing of aviation matters: furthermore, it might give way to an impression of disorder, of insecurity, and indeed, it might be somewhat unsafe. Also, try to arrange the enroute chart so that the whole length of the required track can be exposed throughout the flight with a minimum of re-folding.

 

For this first navigation experience, your instructor will actively assist you on both up and down legs. Once in the air, he will handle the radiocommunications so that you can concentrate on the navigation itself and the proper keeping of the flight-log.

 

Remember the need to fly accurately: checking your chart or looking for checkpoints is no excuse to let the altitude, speed and heading wander all over the place!

Basically, all takeoffs and landings will be carried out according to the short field procedure, with or without flaps, as required, unless the instructor considers the conditions suitable for a soft field takeoff, in which case he will request you in due time to apply this technique. Do not forget to note the navigation departure time and, as soon as conditions permit, fill in the ETO column.

 

As far as approach and landing is concerned, you should normally use the short field technique as well, unless the destination features an excessively long runway, in which case a flapless landing may be considered (remember the higher stall speed). Alternatively, you may be requested to apply the recommended procedure for major heavy traffic airports, i.e. high approach speed, but clearing the runway in the shortest possible time. For every landing, at any airport, never hesitate to go around if needed!

By the way, ensure that you carry your personal log-book along. Do not forget to have it endorsed and countersigned by the local airport authority at the various destinations.

 

Upon return to the home base, this first navigation flight will end with either a practice forced landing or a simple precision landing between spots. Alternatively, assuming suitable open areas when close to destination, and conditions permitting, your instructor might as well reduce power to near idle to simulate an engine failure enroute, in which case you should react as explained in lesson 23: putting the aircraft glide, selecting your landing area, going through the required checklists, etc. The descent may be carried out until the aircraft is established in final approach at ±500 ft AGL, at which moment the instructor will reapply power to proceed to the home base, where a precision landing should then be carried out.

 

B.- FLIGHT TRAINING (Dual 01,30 h. - Total 23,00 h.) (Solo 00,00 h. - Total 09,00 h.) (Total D+S 32,00 h.)

 

As per briefing. Assuming that the aircraft is fitted with a directional gyro, it will be used for the outbound journey, whereas the return trip will be carried out using the magnetic compass only.

 

 

C. - QUESTIONARY

 

There are no more questionaries from lesson 36 onward. However, it is important that you keep reviewing all the previous ones including those pertaining to the various PILOT NOTES, firstly because you will have to undergo a test imposed by your instructor before releasing you for your first solo navigation, secondly because you may expect a thorough oral examination by the official examiner prior to the final flight test, thirdly, and this is in fact the most important reason, because a good theoretical background is essential to the flight safety.

 

Prepare the next navigation as requested by your instructor.

 

IMPORTANT.- NOTES

===============

 

Note I:

 

According to the JAR/FCL regulations, a minimum of 5 hours in solo navigation is required, instead of the former 3 hours. One of these solo navigation flights must. be executed aver a distance of 150 nms and include a full stop landing at two different airfields which are not the original departure point.

 

According to these new rules, the suggested next navigation (FLIGHT II: EBAW-EBKT-EBOS-EBAW) is somewhat short of these new regulations. To cater for this discrepancy, it is suggested to designate an additional turning point somewhere enroute in order to satisfy the required distance of 150 nms.

 

Furthermore, as now 5 hours solo navigation is required instead of 3 hours (pre-JAR era), in order to maintain the original total D+S time. of 47,30 hours, FLIGHT IV may be cancelled as dual training, the associated flight time (±02,00 h.) being carried out as additional  navigational solo training.

 

Note II:

JAR/FCL regulations do not mention any solo "altitude flight" at 2000 m. for the PPL(A), or 3000 m. for the later CPL(A) as was the case for the pre-JAR rules.

 

A.- BRIEFING (01,00 h. - Total 37,30 h.)

 

(Flight EBAW-EBKT-EBOS-EBAW)

 

All remarks in the briefing of lesson 36 remain applicable. This flight implies about 03,30 hours in total. As the flight time matches the minimum legally required navigation time in solo, it is normally this same journey which you will carry out for your first navigation experience without instructor.

 

This time you are supposed to have completed the full preparation by yourself. Your instructor will simply verify your calculations and provide you with any necessary additional information regarding the expected landing airports.

 

In this case, EBKT (Kortrijk-Wevelghem) is an airport with a fairly long concrete runway. Nonetheless, it is a privately owned airport with no control facility. Yet, there is a control tower but providing only information, no clearances as such. It is known as an AFIS (Airport Flight Information Service), and is operated throughout the opening hours (note that such AFIS systems are available at many small grass airfields - check the frequencies in publications such as the Bottlang).

EBOS (astend) is an official airport providing all facilities, including radar. This is an opportunity to request "radar vectorings to final” as soon as you are in contact with the frequency of Ostend Approach: the controller will give you a number of headings and lead you gradually until you are properly established in final for the landing runway. However, it might be up to you to keep track of your cruising altitude and to request 11 clearance to descent” in due time. Remember however that. al though you are in radar contact. YOU STILL REMAIN RESPONSIBLE FOR LOOK-OUT!

The runway (26-08) in EBOS is very long. Be aware however that runway 26, which is the most commonly used, has a displaced landing treshold, and you should not touchdown before having crossed it. On the other hand, the full runway length is available for takeoff. However, at present time, there is no taxiway leading to the beginning of runway 26 so that taking off from the very beginning requires to backtrack from the last intersection: this might be a little inconvenient, particularly with other traffic in the circuit. This is a case where you may accept taking off from the last intersection but, always with the possibility of an engine failure during takeoff in mind, refuse to use any other intersection.

 

The airport of EBAW (Antwerp/Deurne) has VHF/DF facility. This is an opportunity to use it as well. Nonetheless, plan your navigation until the most suitable VFR entry point.

 

Once again, the final landing at your home base should be either a precision landing or a practice forced landing from higher up.

 

B.- FLIGHT TRAINING (Dual 03,30 h. - Total 26,30 h.)m (Solo 00,00 h. - Total 09,00 h.) (Total D+S 35,30 h.)

 

As per briefing. This time, your instructor will let you do everything, including the radio, simply helping or correcting you when absolutely needed. Conditions permitting, he might show you an example of the additional use of the FIC frequency, for instance to request a confirmation of your actual position.

Also remember the existence of the Brussels VOLMET which reports amongst others the weather of Ostend. However, assuming that you are in radio contact, particularly with a controlling frequency such as Brussels Approach, (this is of less importance when FIC is involved), never try to pick up a VOLMET (or an ATIS for that matter) without notifying the controller. Once in radio contact, YOU ARE SUPPOSED TO KEEP A LISTENING WATCH AT ALL TIMES!!! Trying to work with two different frequencies at the same time is the best way to miss a really important message from the ATC controller. Therefore, two recommendations:

 

1°) Don't decide to pick up a VOLMET or an ATIS when you are flying in a zone of heavy traffic: do it in due time when things are somewhat less hectic;

 

2°) In any case, always request to leave the current frequency as follows:

 

AIR: "Brussels Approach, O-XX, request”

 

ATC: "O-XX, go-ahead"

 

AIR: “O-XX, requests to leave your frequency for a few moments to pick up the VOLMET (or whichever)”

 

ATC: "O-XX, roger, report when back on the frequency"

 

This way, the controller is fully aware that he is not able to reach you within the next few minutes, and you have time to listen out to the required information. Once you have it, return to the ATC frequency and:

 

AIR: "Brussels Approach, O-XX, back on your frequency".

 

Assuming that he controller does not want you to leave the frequency (which is rarely the case, unless you would request it at an impossible moment - use your own common sense), you might ask:

 

AIR: "O-XX, roger, could you pass me the latest weather of . . . . .”  (. . . . something which the controller will probably not appreciate very much, as he himself is already pretty busy, but anyway, it is worthwhile trying if absolutely necessary).

 

C.- QUESTIONARY

 

Nil. Review the previous material and prepare the next navigation as requested by your instructor.

 

A.- BRIEFING (01,00 h. - Total 38,30 h.)

 

(Flight EBAW-EBTX-EBSH-EBNM-EBAW)

 

All remarks in the briefings of lessons 36 and 37 remain applicable.

 

Again, the full preparation of this flight is yours. However, in order to avoid the approach path to runways 25L and 25R in Brussels-National, the routing from EBAW to EBTX (Verviers-Theux) should be planned via Herenthals and Hasselt. The route EBTX to EBSH (St-Hubert) is direct, as is the route from EBSH to EBNM (Namur-Temploux). From EBNM to EBAW, again in order to avoid the Brussels-National zone, the route should be planned via Nivelles and Aalst.

 

One must be extremely careful at these various airfields, of which EBSH is the only official one, as there is usually extensive glider activity, particularly at St-Hubert which is the location of the National Glider Flying School. It should be noted that many of these destinations, which are mostly grass airfields, are likely to be closed during wintertime.

 

Once again, during the last leg towards the home base, the instructor may simulate a forced landing at any moment (preferably when close to the destination to avoid disturbing the navigation itself). The landing at the home base will be either a precision landing or a practice forced landing

 

At least one leg will be carried out with the D.G. covered!

 

 

B.- FLIGHT TRAINING (Dual 05,00 h. - Total 31,30 h.) (Solo 00,00 h. - Total 09,00 h.) (Total D+S 40,30 h.)

 

As per briefing.

 

 

C. - QUESTIONARY

 

 

Nil. Review all previous material. Prepare the next navigation as requested by your instructor.

 

A.- BRIEFING (01,00 h. - Total 39,30 h.)

 

You have now some experience with regard to navigation, but chances are that you have not been faced with problems such as the need to reverse course, the circumnavigation procedure or a diversion to another destination. These cases will be covered during this last session in dual.

 

You will initially proceed normally to a destination X, for instance from EBAW to EBAM (Amougies) and, once properly established on course and having passed the second or third checkpoint (or turning point), you will be requested to:

a) execute a course reversal and proceed backwards along the route (without returning all the way to your departure point) ;

 

b) upon passing one of the previous checkpoints, to proceed again to the initially intended destination, thus resuming the navigation as if no course reversal had taken place: this means of course that you must correct your subsequent ETO’s according to the time at which you pass the checkpoint again, on course along the intended route (and this might be the moment that you will appreciate why a pencil and an eraser can be useful);

 

c) once established again on the normal route, the instructor will order you to pick up heading XXX for about 5 minutes, then heading YYY for about another 5 minutes, after which moment you will be requested to return to the previously intended route;

 

d) once you have recognized your actual position (whether or not exactly on the intended route), the instructor will order you to divert to a specific point which, for the purpose of the exercise, may be a major town or any other clearly identifiable landmark: simply pick up the approximate heading and, once established try to make out the ETO;

 

e) upon reaching this first diversion point, you will be requested to perform a second diversion, either back to your home base or, assuming the presence of another airfield in its vicinity (and where you have not yet been, for instance EBHN (Hoevenen) close to EBAW), towards that airfield for landing (it should however been kept in mind that the total training time in navigation should not exceed 12,00 hours).

 

It is recommended to perform all these exercises outside or below the Brussels TMA in order to be free to proceed without interference of the ATC.

 

As usual, upon return to your home base, a precision or a precision landing shall be carried out.

 

 

B.- FLIGHT TRAINING (Dual 02,00 h. - Total 33,30 h.) (Solo 00,00 h. - Total 09,00 h.) (Total D+S 42,30 h.)

 

 

As per briefing.

 

 

C.- QUESTIONARY

 

 

Nil. Review all previous material in view of the theoretical test prior to your first solo navigation flight.

 

A.-BRIEFING (02,00 h. - Total 41,30 h.)

 

Assuming that your navigation training progressed normally, and although this is at present no legal requirement, you should now be submitted to a written test about your general theoretical knowledge before being released for your first solo navigation.

The test should include two parts, the first one composed of 10 random questions issued of the various questionaries, including those of the PILOT NOTES, the second one being related to the performance graphs and tables published in the POR of your training aircraft.

 

Such a test should be arranged in such a way that no doubts can occur about the impartiality of the instructor. Therefore, it is suggested that a number of envelopes, marked “GENERAL", should be prepared beforehand, each of those containing 10 questions of general knowledge; another set of enve i ope sj marked "PERFO", and related to the POR, will include 5 more questions in each.

 

The student will choose himself one "GENERAL" envelope, write his answers on the same sheet as the questionary, and hand it over to the instructor, at which moment he will be requested to choose a second envelope, this time marked "PERFO", and proceed similarly.

 

The first part is of the “closed book examination” type, whereas the second part obviously requires the use of the POH.

The total time for this test is fixed at one hour exactly, the second hour being devoted to the discussion of the answers.

 

Each question is worth one point, unless it requires two or more answers, in which case it will be worth two or more points.

 

If you carefully studied and reviewed the various briefings and pilot notes, you should be able to get easily 100% of the points. Therefore, a score of less than 70% would be considered as unsatisfactory and might be cause for postponing your first navigation without instructor.

 

 

A.- BRIEFING (00,30 h. - Total 42,00 h.)

 

In order to be allowed to the final flight test, the JAR/FCL regulations require, amongst other things, a minimum of five hours navigation in solo. These five hours must include a flight over a distance of at least 150 nms with a full stop landing at two different aerodromes.

This time you are entirely on your own, except for the fact that you must submit your complete preparation to your instructor and of course obtain his approval for departure.

 

B.- FLIGHT TRAINING (Dual 00,00 h. - Total 33,30 h.) (Solo 05,00 h. - Total 14,00 h.) (Total D+S 47,30 h.)

 

As per briefing.

 

 

C. - QUESTIONARY

 

 

Nil. Continue reviewing: remember that you might be submitted to a thorough oral test by the BCAA.

 

 

 

FINISHING TRAINING

===============

 

 

The elementary flight training is now completed, and hopefully you passed the official theoretical examinations some time ago.

 

Assuming that your training progressed strictly according to plan, you logged a total of 47,30 hours in dual and in solo and are now to initiate the more advanced part of the PPL(A) training, namely the basic instrument flying and the basic radionavigation. However, it is always advisable to train your newly acquired skills somewhat more in order to improve your chances of success. This is the reason why the training plan involves 55 hours, thus allowing for an additional 07,30 hours, at least in theory.

 

Unfortunately, as said in the very beginning, all sorts of factors will most likely have influenced your progress, and chances are that not much is left of this residual time. In fact, and particularly if your home base is a heavy traffic regional airport instead of a smaller non-controlled airfield, it is much more probable that you will have already exceeded 55 hours, were it only because of inevitable long taxi's and repetitive delays to obtain takeoff and landing clearances. Nonetheless, some additional hours as finishing training remain highly commendable. One might say that, considering the present day requirements, the additional burden of radio transmissions, and because of the fact that strong crosswinds often prevail due to the orientation of runways (some grass fields have no runways at all and allow to take off with headwind at all times), completing the elementary training within 60 to 65 hours may be considered as a good average.

 

The finishing training, which by the way must not necessarily involve 07,30 hours (it might be more, it might be less, it might be none, it all depends on the student's level of readiness), should mainly involve exercises such as "eights", steep turns, stalls and precision landings.

 

And, as always during solo flights, don't let yourself be lured into sloppy flying! Remember: ABSOLUTE PERFECTION IN FLYING IS IMPOSSIBLE. BUT IF YOU FAIL TO STRIVE TO PERFECTION ONCE YOU ARE NO LONGER UNDER SUPERVISION OF AN INSTRUCTOR OR AN EXAMINER. YOU WILL INEVITABLY BECOME A SECOND RATE PILOT AND POSSIBLY A DANGER TO YOURSELF AND TO THIRD PARTIES.

 

You might feel rather nervous at the PPL(A) flight test. This is absolutely normal: most of us are more or less affected by this phenomenon, probably due to some sort of fear of failing. Some individuals are particularly subject to this syndrome, which is often worse for candidates looking for a future career in aviation, probably because of the feeling that a lot is at stake. There have been cases whereby student pilots, which otherwise reached a satisfactory, and sometimes a high level of proficiency during their training, are affected by this phenomenon to such an extend that they loose the major part of their capabilities.

 

To help you to overcome this nervousness, keep the following in mind:

 

- To begin with, your instructor would not allow you to undergo the flight test if you would not have completed the training to his satisfaction and that he would not consider you as ready to pass it. In fact, there is no reason that you should fail.

 

- Don't let yourself be influenced by the attitude of the examiner: some are nice, gentle and smiling, others can be harsh, unfriendly and might be looking down to you as if, in their mind, they consider you as utterly incapable from the on­set. Whichever the character you are facing, neither the nice type, nor the other one, is out to "sack" you. Examiners simply expect a decent theoretical knowledge, a decent performance and, above all, a lot of common sense when it comes to flight safety. You will probably make some mistakes during the flight test. Be aware that it is not because you make one, or even more, that you will fail the examination . . . . which, of course, does not mean that you can make a complete mess of it but again, why should you ? And by the way, don't believe that instructors or examiners are supermen: they too where (and are still) submitted to proficiency checks of all sorts, and they too make mistakes once in a while.

 

- It is true that some items are theoretically disqualifying if not correctly executed: so are for instance the precision landings which are supposed to occur between two spots. However, this sort of exercise always involves a small amount of luck and, unless the spots are missed by "miles", touching down somewhat short of the first one or past the second one can be accepted, or an additional attempt may be offered. However, if you disregard for instance the precautions to be taken before a stall exercise, don't be surprised if the flight test is stopped short.

 

- Unless you obviously neglect a basic safety principle, for instance proper look-out, or that the examiner had to take over the controls at some stage to avoid a major incident, or that your theoretical knowledge and/or your flying ability turns out to be definitely insufficient, your performance will be judged as a whole. It is the balance between the good and the less good things which will ultimately result in the final appreciation.

 

All the best for the coming flight test, and lots of happy landings in the future!!!

 

 

EPILOGUE

=========

 

 

The elementary flight training phase is now completed. However, according to the JAR/FCL, you still need additional training in the more advanced fields of instrument flying and radionavigation in order to obtain the PPL(A) and being allowed to fly without the presence on board, or at least the supervision, of an instructor, as sole occupant or with (non fare paying) passengers, in VMC, by day and, over Belgian territory or anywhere else, on the aircraft type(s) in which you qualified.

 

Most present day light trainers are fitted with the required equipment to satisfy this additional training, in which case there is no need to switch to another aircraft type at this stage.

 

Basic instrument flying and radionavigation are part of the ADVANCED FLIGHT TRAINING MANUAL of the same author (which includes the transition to other aircraft, night flying, and basic aerobatics as well), and additional information are to be found in associated PILOT NOTES. The material covered in these parts is somewhat more extensive than the specified requirements for the PPL (A) . The flight training should be provided by an instructor which is fully cognizant with the various tracking and interception procedures, preferably even by an IFR qualified individual. Completing this training will not only provide you with a solid basis to pass the associated examination without any problem, it will also allow you to efficiently prepare yourself for the later IFR training. On the other hand, even if you are not interested in commercial flying, it will provide far much easier, and thus safer, navigation flights in VMC.

 

Candidates to the CPL/IR(A) or ATPL(A) must go through all the items contained in the ADVANCED FLIGHT TRAINING MANUAL. If this is your case, you should already be well advanced in the preparation of the theoretical CPL/IR (A) examination at this stage, perhaps even with the ATPL(A). Incidentally, many candidates to the ATPL (A) immediately follow the associated courses after having passed the theoretical PPL(A) examination, skipping the CPL/IR(A) examination. Even worse, some individuals go immediately for the theoretical ATPL (A), skipping both PPL (A) and CPL/IR(A) examinations. Although this is perfectly legal, and considered as less expensive, we strongly advise against this method, for the very simple reason that by skipping any intermediate official examination, a number of more elementary, but nonetheless important theoretical aspects are likely to remain in the dark: the ATPL course, although extremely interesting, is rather academic and assumes that a number of matters, often of more practical nature, are known.

 

As far as basic aerobatics and the associated in-flight examination are concerned, the new JAR-FCL's eliminate these from the syllabus. This is a good thing, at least in Belgium where decent aerobatic aircraft are scarce and expensive, where the weather conditions are mostly rather questionable, and where some airport or ATC authorities are reluctant to allow aerobatics overhead the airfield on grounds of environmental or so-called flight safety problems. Nonetheless, although basic aerobatics are no longer part of the official requirements, if the opportunity exists at your home base (or elsewhere), we strongly recommend you to take advantage of it, and follow the la hours course as covered in the ADVANCED FLIGHT TRAINING MANUAL, were it only to improve your flying abilities and your self-confidence.

 

Once you are fully involved with the advanced flight training phase, don't throw away your ELEMENTARY FLIGHT TRAINING MANUAL and the associated PILOT NOTES. Look back at these once in a while, were it only to check whether you are still able to correctly answer the various questionaries: if not, review the texts! And be aware that you still will have to refer to this material throughout your future training, including during the later IFR tuition.

 

Equally important, remember that in order to obtain the CPL(A), and particularly the later indispensable IFR qualification, you need to fly a number of hours as pilot in command. This is where many individuals allow their general knowledge to fade away and their flight proficiency to deteriorate significantly simply because, being no longer submitted to the exacting requirements of an instructor, they content themselves to fly "for the fun of it". AS a consequence, when they finally apply for more advanced matters such as IFR training, it turns out that their level is average at most, and very often definitely poor. Don't be one of these!!! And to avoid such a sorry state of things, keep the following recommendations in mind:

 

1°) After having obtained the PPL(A), any flight as pilot in command should be considered as a training flight. Whether or not you are flying with passengers, concentrate on keeping exactly a specified altitude, a specified airspeed and a specified heading or track . . . . . and keep that ball centered, even for a local sight-seeing flight.

 

2°) Don't limit your navigation flights to the close-by airfields of which you know the route practically by heart. Choose more challenging destinations. And although you completed the radionavigation course, regularly fly to various destinations or targets without making use of the navaids. but flying purely according to the D.R. technique.

 

3°) Remember that as long as you fly single-engined aircraft, if ever a mechanical engine failure occurs during flight, you are in for a forced landing (perhaps even shortly after takeoff). Although the chances for such an occurrence are remote, you must always be prepared for it: considering the possibility for an enroute engine failure, regularly exercise practice forced landings. with or without passengers . . . ON ANY SINGLE-ENGINED TYPE YOU HAPPEN TO FLY!!!

4°) As said earlier, although aerobatics are no longer required, it is strongly suggested to follow a basic training in this concern anyhow if the opportunity exists.

 

5°) Finally, once again, continue to review all briefings and questionaries you have received so far.

Even when flying as pilot in command¡ remember that one examiner will always be on board which hopefully will be absolutely unforgiving for any error, negligence, or even for the slightest imperfection: YOUR OWN SELF!