Transition to complex aircraft (including Twin)

 

A.- BRIEFING

 

Don't fail to read the previous introduction. During these two first lessons of about two hours each, the POH will be discussed: aircraft's frame, systems, limitations, performances, weight and balance, normal and abnormal procedures.

 

The briefing lessons shall include at least one visit to the aircraft in order to show you the peculiarities of its equipment, and to perform a preflight inspection. During this inspection, your instructor will show you all levers, handles and dials. He will also show you the location of the various radio and navaid antenna's, and briefly explain their purpose.    

 

It is also strongly recommended that you should spend some time, on your own, in the pilot's seat, to acquaint yourself with this new environment, the adjustment of the seats, the indications and markings of the instruments, etc.

 

Notes:           

 

1°) Assuming a retractable landing gear and a takeoff on a very long runway, keeping a possible engine failure in mind the retraction of the gear should be delayed until it becomes obvious that a landing can no longer be carried out on the runway.       

 

2°) Still with the engine failure in mind, always prepare yourself mentally to this event: do not forget to perform the passengers and self-briefing before each takeoff (see ELEMENTARY FLIGHT TRAINING MANUAL).

 

 

 

B.- FLIGHT TRAINING     

 

 

Nil.     

 

 

 

You will perform the external inspection of the aircraft, under the instructor's supervision.    

 

Once in the pilot's seat, ensure that you are properly installed with the seat adjusted to your needs.

 

You will handle the aircraft and the normal radio transmissions throughout the flight, from engine start to shutdown, albeit under close monitoring of your instructor.

 

Although most of the items below have been discussed during your basic training, let us recall the following:  

 

- Avoid the "heavy feet" phenomenon during flight: leave the heels on the ground and keep the tip of the feet on the underside of the rudder pedals;          

 

- The control wheel should be held lightly during flight, using one hand only, two fingers are usually sufficient most of the time: this is the best way to develop trim awareness;  

 

- If shoulder straps are available, use them!      

 

- As far as checklists for normal operations are concerned (you must have a current copy), keep in mind that these are not intended as DO lists: their only purpose is to verify that nothing has been forgotten; when flying with your instructor or another pilot in the right seat, call out each item loudly and clearly;          

 

- Remember that no excessive power should be applied to initiate the taxi, just enough to have the aircraft start moving (at light weights, it is often sufficient to release the brakes without adding power at all). If you released the parking brakes to start taxi, ensure that the toe-brakes are operating properly immediately after taxi initiation. This check must be done smoothly: there is no need to stop the aircraft again, simply verify that the toe-brakes feel normal;   

 

- Always taxi at an acceptable pace, not too fast, not too slow, but do not indulge in excessive taxi speeds. It is sometimes recommended to maintain a minimum of 1000 rpm during taxi to avoid spark-plug fouling. This may be acceptable on grass, and may even be necessary, however on concrete it gives way either to a too high taxi speed, or to possible brake overheating, particularly at low weights in combination with tailwind.     

 

- Always remain on the centre of the taxiway and proceed along the yellow centreline when there is one available. Remember how to keep the flight controls when taxiing under strong wind conditions;   

 

- Assuming that the aircraft is fitted with a nose wheel, either maintain the control wheel neutral, or leave it in forward position; use the full aft position only to pass over rugged surface parts, with power and speed reduced to minimum;     

 

- Under strong wind conditions, the engine run-up should preferably be conducted with the aircraft facing the wind: this may be of paramount importance with some engines having a tendency to overheat. Never initiate the engine run-up over patches of loose gravel;           

 

- During all phases of flight requiring constant altitude, constant heading or constant speed, these parameters are to be maintained respectively within ± 100 feet, ± 100 and ± 10 knots, with the understanding that these are maximum allowable deviations: the "target" values must always be recovered as soon as possible;    

 

- During all phases of flight, trimming is essential: flight controls should be held lightly, as said before, and even completely released at intervals to verify the correct trim setting;   

 

- Look-out is imperative at all times, particularly before and during turns.   

 

The propeller effects are probably more marked than on basic trainers, thus requiring more aggressive use of rudder during takeoff and climb. Keep in mind that, unlike many basic trainers, more advanced aircraft are fitted with a rudder trim. If such is the case, do not hesitate to use it.   

 

If the POH suggests the use of a reduced power and a specific climbing speed after takeoff, these settings should be selected after having passed at least 500 ft AGL. Note that these settings are usually lower than those required to obtain the published best rate of climb performances. Remember that, during climb as well as during any operation at low speed and high power setting, the engine temperatures, and particularly the CHT, must be closely monitored.

 

You will perform the engine run-up and the "BEFORE TAKEOFF" checklist, then request the takeoff clearance and proceed accordingly. If the aircraft is noticeably more powerful than the one you used to fly before, the acceleration during this first takeoff and climb combined with the presence of systems such as retractable landing gear and constant speed propeller may seem a bit overwhelming. This feeling is typical for a first flight on a complex aircraft, so nothing to worry about: at any rate your instructor will actively assist you until the aircraft is settled in normal cruise, from which moment you will be given the time to get acquainted to this new environment.           

 

You should perform the "AFTER TAKEOFF" checklist after having retracted the flaps and reduced to climb power (if such a reduction is applicable), and not before having passed at least 500 ft AGL, possibly even when the aircraft is already established in cruise at lower altitude. In the possible "commotion" of this first takeoff you will probably not think about it until reminded to do so. At any rate, remember that there is no hurry in going through the "AFTER TAKEOFF" checklist. Remember also that, if a fuel booster pump is involved, NEVER SWITCH IT OFF TOO CLOSE TO THE GROUND AND/OR WITHOUT CHECKING THAT THE FUEL PRESSURE REMAINS NORMAL. If the fuel pressure drops, the engine fuel pump has failed: IMMEDIATELY SWITCH THE PUMP ON AGAIN. LEAVE IT ON. AND COME BACK FOR LANDING!!    

 

You will establish the aircraft in normal cruise at a specified altitude, at a given power setting (usually around 65%, or at a specified setting used for training flights), with the mixture adjusted as required. Here again, your instructor will assist you. Remember the existence of a "CRUISE" checklist (obviously to be carried out after the completion of the "AFTER TAKEOFF" checklist). Assuming that the engine is fitted with cowl-flaps, remember that these are normally to be closed in cruise flight: failing to close them may easily cause a loss of 5 kts in lAS.  

 

Once in cruise you will be allowed to handle the aircraft at your own convenience for a few moments without any specific assignment. Work the ailerons, the rudder and the elevator separately to get the "feel" the aircraft's reactions around each axis; try a few turns left and right: all this will help you to settle down and relax. If the aircraft is fitted with a so-called TAS indicator, be sure that you know how to use it.           

 

After a short while the instructor will cover the D.G. and request the execution of a few 1800 or 3600 turns left and right, at 30° bank angle, using outside references only. Next, using the magnetic compass only, you will be requested to pick up various headings. Do not forget the look-out! He will then uncover the D.G.: unless it is a slaved type, verify it against the magnetic compass. Remember the three required conditions to do this; wings level, steady lAS and little or no turbulence. To complete this part he will ask you to pick up a few headings on the D.G.        

 

The next exercise consists of reducing the lAS to circuit speed, maintaining heading and altitude. When established and well trimmed, note the required power setting and the pitch attitude.

 

At circuit speed, fully release the control wheel, select the flaps to approach setting, and observe the possible change in pitch attitude that this manoeuvre causes: readjust the pitch attitude to maintain level flight, retrim, and observe the drop in lAS due to the additional drag. Readjust the lAS at the initial circuit speed, or at a somewhat lower predetermined value as required by the instructor. As this configuration, partial flaps (and gear up), is normally the configuration used for initial approach in IFR, note the required power setting and pitch attitude to maintain the specified lAS. Turns to each side towards specified headings will be carried out in this configuration.  

 

Assuming a retractable landing gear, release again the control wheel, select the landing gear down, and observe now whether this manoeuvre affects the pitch attitude one way or the other: if it does, readjust the pitch attitude to maintain level flight, re-trim, and observe again the drop in lAS due to the additional drag. Readjust once more the lAS at the previous speed with partial flaps. This configuration, partial flaps (and gear down), is the configuration used in downwind for visual circuits: also note the required power setting and pitch attitude to maintain the specified lAS. Here again, turns to each side towards specified headings will be carried out.   

 

On the last assigned heading, you will now increase power to normal cruise, retract the gear and the flaps (be careful for probable opposite pitch effects), taking care to maintain heading and altitude, and perform the "AFTER TAKEOFF" checklist.        

 

You will now rejoin the airport's traffic circuit, reduce speed in due time, perform the "APPROACH" checklist upon nearing or entering downwind, and try this first landing to the best of your abilities, obviously under close scrutiny of your instructor.        

 

After landing, you will perform the "AFTER LANDING" checklist, proceed to the parking area, stop the aircraft with the nose wheel straight, shutdown the engine and perform the "PARKING" checklist.     

 

As far as the "AFTER LANDING" checklist is concerned, remember that it is to be carried out only after the aircraft has reached normal taxi speed, and preferably after having cleared the runway: too many pilots have the tendency to initiate this checklist immediately after touchdown which is absolutely unnecessary and can even be dangerous. The only action which might be desirable, but only under very specific conditions such as a very short and wet runway, is to retract the flaps shortly after touchdown to improve wheel friction, and thus braking action.         

 

Regarding the various normal checklists, although some actions (such as the landing gear operation) are mostly carried out at the time that the checklist is performed, remember that they are not DO lists. Their aim is mainly as the name implies: to "check" that all required actions have been taken. 

 

ADDITIONAL INFORMATIONS FOR TWIN-ENGINED AIRCRAFT

 

Multi-engined aircraft bring along the concept of accelerate-stop distance, or ASD. On light twins it means the distance required during takeoff to accelerate until rotation speed, at which moment an engine failure is supposed to occur, calling for both throttles to be closed, and the aircraft to be brought to a full stop. The accelerate-stop distance must never exceed the takeoff distance, or TOD (see ELEMENTARY FLIGHT TRAINING MANUAL), and varies according to a number of parameters amongst which the takeoff weight, the density altitude, the wind conditions, the nature and slope of the runway. Although the problems related to the engine out case will be discussed in depth at a later stage, it is essential that the accelerate-stop principle is introduced at the very first flight.     

 

In view of an engine failure shortly after takeoff, it is of utmost importance to be within the maximum allowable takeoff weight and to have an idea of the resulting rate of climb. Furthermore, the position of the centre of gravity must be carefully checked before initiating the takeoff roll.   

Note that, as far as taxi is concerned, asymmetric power can be used whenever sharp turns are absolutely necessary.        

 

The engine run-up may usually be carried out by increasing power on both engines at the same time to the required rpm, checking the magneto's one after the other on both power plants and verifying all other parameters for correctness. However, cycling the propellers should preferably be carried out independently. After completion of these checks, bring both engines back to idle at the same time.    

 

Some twin-engined aircraft are fitted with contra-rotating propellers whose purpose it is to eliminate the propeller effects during normal flight.     

 

The takeoff is carried out by advancing both throttle levers to takeoff power at the same time. Assuming turbocharged engines, particularly with a fixed wastegate, be careful not to exceed the maximum allowable MAP. During takeoff there is a possibility to use asymmetric power to counteract either propeller or crosswind effects, or a combination of them. However it must be kept in mind that doing so is always at the expense of the accelerate-stop and takeoff distances.           

 

During flight, particularly during cruise, it is necessary that both engines are synchronized at exactly the same RPM. Failing to do so will cause the occurrence of an unpleasant beating noise. To synchronize both engines it is recommended to establish a "master" and a "slaved" one: when the master engine is set at the required rpm the second engine can be adjusted in turn, preferably by reducing the rpm (which is usually easier to do than by increasing the rpm). Consequently, when it comes to reduce from climb to cruise power, bring back both MAP's together to about the same value, then reduce both rpm's to just slightly higher than required, fine tune the master engine and finally adjust the slaved one.     

 

 

 

As you are now somewhat acquainted to this new type of aircraft, you will feel already more relaxed than during the first flight, particularly during the takeoff and initial climb phases.        

 

As far as the takeoff is concerned, and keeping the possibility of an engine failure in mind, the need to use the full runway length at any time cannot be stressed enough.

 

Furthermore / at airports where a successful straight ahead forced landing is practically impossible due to obstacles, for instance when taking off on runway 29 in Antwerp-Deurne, it is imperative to reach as much height as possible, as soon as possible after liftoff to enable you to perform an avoidance manoeuvre if need be. To this purpose, you should:   

 

a) takeoff with flaps up if allowed to do so, in order to obtain the best climb performance after lift off;   

 

b) assuming a retractable landing gear, as soon as a positive climb is obtained, stop the wheel rotation by depressing the toe-brakes and select the gear UP "positive climb" means pitch attitude correct, normal rate of climb, altimeter increasing/ lAS increasing to, or stabilized around, the required value (Vx);

 

c) maintain Vx until a height of at least 500 ft AGL, then lower the nose slightly to obtain Vy until about 1000 ft AGL; finally then/ unless best rate of climb is required, pick up recommended normal climb speed, reduce to the recommended climb power, and perform the after takeoff checklist.

 

These various climb methods shall be applied during this session, each of them requiring the appropriate pitch trim setting. Be aware that climbing at Vx requires a rather marked pitch up attitude which, for those who are not acquainted with this technique, may seem a little alarming. Each time that the aircraft is firmly established at either Vx, Vy or cruise climb, take note of the associated pitch attitudes.       

 

Regarding the descent, two main types are to be considered: the power on descent which is the usual method, and the glide descent which is essentially related to engine out emergencies. Remember that power on descents can be executed in a wide range of speeds, up to Vne, maintaining ± 500 ft/min for physiological reasons.       

 

Assuming that the aircraft is fitted with a retractable landing gear, remember the throttle lever position at which the landing gear warning horn starts operating. If you want to descent at 500 ft/min at the lowest possible speed without the warning horn sounding all the time, reduce the throttle lever slightly above this position and accept the associated IAS. If it is too high (whether because you exceed Vno in turbulent conditions, or because you exceed the flaps extended maximum speed) you have of course no other option than to reduce further and accept the warning horn . . . . . or to extend the landing gear. 

 

As said, glide descents are merely the result of an engine failure rather than a normal operating procedure (at least as far as piston-engined aircraft are concerned). These will be covered in lesson TR-08.      

 

During this session you will carry out climbs and descents, including turns, under various conditions of speed and aircraft configuration, keeping the ball centred at all times. Remember that climbing turns are to be carried out at shallow bank angle. The aircraft can also show a tendency to increase bank angle on its own during climbing turn, and a similar tendency to decrease the bank angle during descending turns (see ELEMENTARY FLIGHT TRAINING MANUAL and PILOT NOTE III).

 

One exercise will involve a go-around from a descent in landing configuration. Remember the procedure:    

 

a) Apply full power and check carburettor heat off;      

 

b) Simultaneously pick up the required pitch attitude to obtain either Vx or Vy;     

 

c) Immediately retract flaps from full down position to the approach position (or any other recommended setting) ;     

 

d) Assuming a retractable landing gear, verify the positive climb and select it to UP;       

 

e) When reaching a safe altitude (say ± 500 ft above the altitude at which the go-around was initiated), proceed in cruise climb, reduce power and perform the "AFTER TAKEOFF" checklist; 

 

f) Watch the pitch trim setting during the whole process.        

 

Slow flight, and associated turns, will be carried out at a specified altitude and on specified headings, down to speeds close to Vs (flaps up) and Vso (landing configuration). Note the speeds at which the stall warning occurs. Keep in mind the need to correct for propeller effects to keep the ball centred. Don't fail to watch the engine oil temperature and CRT during very slow flight: open the cowl flaps if necessary.

 

This flight will be completed with at least one touch-and-go followed by a normal circuit. Remember to maintain circuit speed and, above all, to keep a sharp look-out!

 

Regarding the circuit, remember that a perfectly rectangular pattern is expected (unless local regulations dictate otherwise), thus requiring proper drift corrections, an maintaining 1000 ft or 1500 ft AGL. Keep the following in mind:        

 

a) After takeoff or touch-and-go, the runway axis must be maintained until the crossleg is initiated: this turn is to be carried out with a shallow bank angle (± 15°), unless the aircraft is already in level flight, in which case 25° to 30° bank angle should be used;    

 

b) For touch-and-go's, considering that the flaps are fully retracted during the takeoff roll (and even if they are retracted only to the approach position - they have to be extended anyway to this setting in downwind) the "AFTER TAKEOFF" checklist may be restricted to the "positive climb-gear up" action if a retractable landing gear is involved. Landing lights, and possibly the auxiliary fuel pump may remain in operation during the whole process; 

 

c) The turn to downwind is to be initiated so as not to be too close nor too far from the airport, taking wind effects into account. Here again, see possible local regulations;       

 

d) As soon as the aircraft is in downwind, the ATC is to be notified and the approach checklist performed in the normal way (or vice-versa: first the checklist, then the ATC, depending traffic intensity ... on show your common sense);        

 

e) When passing the runway treshold, continue for 10 to 20 seconds in downwind, depending on the speed, before turning in base-leg while keeping the runway in sight (if you have a stopwatch on board, use it). The turn in base-leg should also be carried out at 25° to 30° of bank angle;           

 

f) As soon as the aircraft is in base-leg, extend the flaps to the required intermediate position (delay this action if, for some reason, you are too far away common sense again!!!), and start descent at the required speed, keeping the aircraft properly trimmed;          

 

g) A descending turn to final is to be carried out in due time so as not to overshoot or undershoot the runway axis: be aware of possible crosswind conditions. Also this turn should be carried out at 25° to 30° of bank angle;    

 

h) When in final (and once again, delay the following actions if you are too far away for some reason), select full flaps, reduce to the final approach speed, perform the final checklist as usual, and notify the ATC.

 

Regarding the final approach speed, assuming that the reported surface wind is more than 10 knots, add a wind correction to the published final approach speed (which is usually already on the high side) as follows: 1/2 the steady wind + the full value of possible gusts. For instance, assuming a published final approach speed of 60 kts:    

1°) if the reported wind is 14 kts, use 60 + 7 = 67 kts as final approach speed;      

 

2°) if the reported wind is 14 kts with gusts up to 24 kts, use 60 + 7 + 10 = 77 kts as final approach speed.           

 

Basically, the wind correction should not exceed a total of 20 kts, but this may be left to your appreciation.

 

Remember finally the following:  

 

- Assuming that the ATC requests you to extend downwind, reduce the speed to minimum safe value too avoid going much too far ... or request the permission to perform a 360° turn;    

 

- Assuming that a 360° turn is required as delaying action, you should immediately take a landmark and turn around it, maintaining a constant radius ... and don't forget the look-out!!!   

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION FOR TWIN-ENGINED AIRCRAFT

 

Nil      

 

 

 

 

During the climb to the operating altitude the instructor will request you to pick up a number of headings, thus inducing climbing turns while maintaining the normal climbing speed and the ball centred. As usual, divide your attention between the instrument panel and the outside world. Do not forget to look-out!

 

Upon reaching cruising altitude, maintain the last assigned heading, level off, select now 65% cruise power according to the specifications in the POH: MAP, RPM, mixture, cowl flaps, trim, and do not forget to go through the cruise checklist.           

 

a) Steep turns        

 

The steep turns shall be performed in excess of 45°, up to 60° bank angle, to the left as well as to the right. Steep turns shall be carried over 360° or a multiple thereoff: prior to initiate them¡ identify a landmark in front of you in order to roll out in the same direction.

 

Remember that the entry in, as well as the rollout of, steep turns should be carried out smoothly. The roll out should be initiated some 20° before the required direction, taking care to remove the up elevator pressure required during the turn to avoid rolling out in a nose up attitude. Power should be simultaneously brought back to normal cruise.

 

Regarding the entry in the turn, do not increase power until the airspeed approaches the published value for steep turns (if this value is not available in the POH, use the lowest VA as reference), at which moment full, or near full power should be selected, including high rpm in case of a constant speed propeller.

 

Be aware that, due to propeller effects, the control inputs may be slightly different in a left turn as compared to a right turn. Also remember that the stall speed is considerably increased in a steep turn: assuming that initial buffeting occurs, do not steepen the turn any further. Be also prepared to encounter your own slipstream, particularly if the turn implies more than 360°.

 

Remember also that the D.G. becomes unreliable during steep turns and has to be reset with the magnetic compass after completion of the exercises.  

 

b) Stalls         

 

Prior to initiate a stall, or a serie of stalls, do not fail to go through the SLIMOPALC mnemonic (see ELEMENTARY FLIGHT TRAINING MANUAL). If your aircraft is fitted with a constant speed propeller, it is advisable to select it at high rpm. 

 

Stalls should be carried out in clean and landing configurations, each time noting the speed at which the stall warning occurs as well as the lAS at break away. Let each time the aircraft actually stall before recovery:       

 

1°) Stall from level flight, idle power, flaps (and gear) UP;

 

2°) Stall in landing configuration, idle power, flaps (and gear) full down;   

 

3°) Stall from 30° banked climbing turn, cruise power or slightly less, flaps (and gear) UP;           

 

4°) Stall in climb attitude, assuming an engine failure (whereby the instructor will abruptly reduce power to, or close to, idle) and a 180° steep turn attempt before lowering the nose (single-engined aircraft only) .       

 

c) Spin          

 

Assuming that the aircraft is certificated for spinning, AND THAT ALL BASIC REOUIREMENTS ARE FULFILLED (see POH), and assuming that you have previous experience with this manoeuvre, you will perform at least one spin exercise (two turns) to each side. If you have no previous spin experience, your instructor will perform and comment the demonstration (an additional flight session to further acquaint you with spinning may be arranged).     

 

This flight session shall be completed with a number of normal circuits an touch-and-go's for the remainder of the time available.   

 

 

 

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION FOR TWIN-ENGINED AIRCRAFT

 

 

Nil       

 

 

 

This flight session is optional: its need largely depends on your performance during the earlier touch-and-go exercises, or may be dictated by the fact that, because of the ATC restrictions which are imposed at certain airports, or any other reason, you simply had no opportunity to get sufficient training in this field. If at all feasible, this lesson may be combined with the next one, or be cancelled altogether.       

 

Note that if the transition to this aircraft type is required to initiate the basic I.F. and basic radionavigation trainings, this lesson, as well as the subsequent ones, may be integrated in these programs but, assuming a single-engined aircraft, cause a possible delay for the first solo flight.          

 

Remember also that if the transition concerns a twin-engined aircraft, additional training is required anyway for engine out operations. The twin-engine rating is subject to a proficiency test flight under supervision of a BCAA representative.   

ADDITIONAL INFORMATIONS FOR TWIN-ENGINED AIRCRAFT

 

Nil       

 

 

 

a) Short field takeoff and landing

 

See in the POH which conditions must be fulfilled to perform a short field takeoff and landing.           

 

Study the expected takeoff roll, takeoff distances, landing distances and landing roll under various OAT conditions at your home base. Remember that the related charts or graphs are made for runways which are supposed to be level, paved and dry. Unless information is available in the POH for possible runway slope, grass and wet conditions, the following corrections should be applied to the published distances:           

 

1°) For a dry grass runway: multiply both takeoff and landing distances by 1,3;    

 

2°) For a wet runway (concrete or grass): multiply both takeoff and landing distances by 1,4;    

 

3°) For a sloped runway (maximum is normally 2 %): multiply both takeoff and landing distances by 1,1.

 

Keep in mind that the increments here above are cumulative and that, on top of these, an additional safety for so-called unfactored data is strongly recommended: the corrected takeoff distance should be multiplied by 1,33, the corrected landing distance by 1,43. Further details are to be found in the ELEMENTARY FLIGHT TRAINING MANUAL.  

 

Regarding the short field landing, the calculations in the POH are based on a specified speed at 50 ft above the runway threshold. Considering that this minimum safe speed is recognized to be 1,3 times the stall speed in the prevailing configuration, i.e. 1,3 Vso for full flaps, many light general aviation aircraft POH's recommend higher value than this official minimum, sometimes considerably higher. The reason for this "discrepancy" is probably the fact that, at 1,3 Vso, the forward visibility might be impaired due to the nose up attitude. Nevertheless, the published speed should be retained, notwithstanding that shorter landing distances could be obtained.   

 

b) Precautionary landing

 

Chances are that, until now, all the landings you performed were carried out according to the short field technique which, in fact, is THE normal landing method.      

 

Unlike the short field landing, the precautionary landing is an abnormal procedure: it is solely used for landing on unprepared surfaces as is the case during a forced landing outside the boundaries of an airport. AS this type of landing requires as short a ground run as possible because of the questionable nature of the surface, the final approach speed should be as low as possible, but preferably not lower than 1,3 Vso. As basically no appropriate wind correction is applied (during a forced landing in open country this information is not available anyway), the pilot must be ready to react instantly, possibly to initiate a go-around, if the aircraft is put out of balance due to a strong gust of wind, a downdraft, or whichever reason. The full explanation and description of the precautionary landing is to be found in the ELEMENTARY FLIGHT TRAINING MANUAL.

 

ADDITIONAL INFORMATIONS FOR TWIN-ENGINED AIRCRAFT

 

In lesson TR-01, the principle of accelerate-stop distance has been brought to attention. For light twin-engined aircraft, it is the distance from brake release to the point where the aircraft can be brought to a full stop, assuming an engine failure at rotation speed. Considering the fact that the accelerate-stop distance (ASD) is usually longer than the takeoff distance (TOD), i.e. the distance from brake release to 50 ft, the available runway length should at least be equal to the ASD.

 

For some reason, no reference is ever made to the ASD when single-engined aircraft are involved, notwithstanding the fact that also these can suffer an engine failure at rotation speed . . . . and should also be stopped before running out of runway.

 

Fact is that the ASD principle originated from the operation of heavy multi-engined aircraft used in the commercial air transport: these MUST be able to continue to climb safely or to be stopped within the available runway length if an engine failure occurs at maximum allowable takeoff weight, at a calculated critical speed called VI: for these aircraft, once that critical speed is trespassed, the pilot MUST continue the takeoff (see also lesson TR-09).

 

The major difference affecting light twin-engined aircraft is that there is no legal requirement whatsoever that these should be able to climb at all if an engine fails during the takeoff phase!!! Many can gain altitude though, but provided that a number of conditions are previously fulfilled: the landing gear must be retracted, the propeller of the failed engine must be feathered, etc. and, above all, the maximum takeoff weight must be within limits!!! And, under certain circumstances of density altitude, the climb performance may be so little that no safety at all can be guaranteed. As a conclusion, light twins are obviously much safer than single-engined aircraft when it comes to an engine failure in flight, EXCEPT IF THE FAILURE OCCURS AT ROTATION. OR SHORTLY AFTER TAKEOFF!!!

 

At any rate, as the POH of light twins includes accelerate-stop distances, these values should be taken into consideration, particularly when a short field takeoff is involved. And, here again, the published distances must be adapted to the to the runway conditions. Use the same corrections as mentioned here above, and multiply the ASD by:  

- 1,3 x 1,33 for a grass runway     

- 1,4 x 1,33 for any wet runway (concrete or grass)      

- 1,1 x 1,33 for an uphill sloped runway 

 

Besides the necessity of verifying the ASD for the involved conditions, you must be fully aware of the fact that, if an engine failure occurs during the takeoff roll, the aircraft will not decelerate on its own to a stop: as the operating engine still develops full power, a severe yaw towards the "dead" engine will occur, and it is impossible to counteract this yaw motion by means of the rudder. Thus: SHOULD AN ENGINE FAILURE OCCUR DURING THE TAKEOFF ROLL. POWER MUST BE REDUCED IMMEDIATELY ON BOTH ENGINES. IN ORDER TO MAINTAIN THE AIRCRAFT ON THE RUNWAY!!!! Any hesitation to take this action will cause the aircraft to run off the runway, with all possible results to be expected. In other words: DURING EACH TAKEOFF PHASE. YOU MUST BE READY TO INSTANTANEOUSLY CLOSE BOTH THROTTLE LEVERS AT THE VERY FIRST SIGN OF A FALTERING ENGINE!!!!    

 

CAUTION !!

 

On some aircraft types, such as the SENECA II, the short field takeoff implies a rotation at an airspeed which is dangerously low (in fact lower than Vmc - see next lesson). This implies that if an engine failure occurs at rotation, or immediately thereafter, there is no way to keep the aircraft under control: also here, both throttle levers must be closed at once.

 

 

 

Precision landings and practice forced landings have been fully explained and described in the ELEMENTARY FLIGHT TRAINING MANUAL.  

 

As you probably recall, these manoeuvres, and particularly the precision landings whereby you must aim to touch the ground between two spots at about 100 meters from each other with the engine at idle or near idle power, are not merely exercises to the purpose of an examination but, on single-engined aircraft, are an essential training which could some day save your life if ever you are faced with an engine failure during flight. This is why it is strongly recommended to keep practicing this type of landing as often as possible, even as a fully qualified pilot, as well with as without passengers on board (preferably passengers which are acquainted with this manoeuvre), in order to be ready at any time. 

 

Remember that the precision landing is carried out from a specified height, 1000 to 1500 ft AGL, and that it is in fact the last phase of an engine failure situation which occurred previously, at a higher altitude.           

 

The engine failure case during takeoff roll or shortly after takeoff will also be covered, as well as other unusual situations such as emergency extension of the landing gear, landing with flaps up, balked landings, and radiocommunication failure.       

 

One last piece of advice: it may happen that an engine falters during flight because of a fuel tank running dry; in this case switching to another tank solves the problem instantaneously. However, particularly with a constant speed propeller, it is strongly recommended to reduce the throttle to near idle before executing this tank switching to avoid an all too abrupt refiring which might lead to a propeller overspeed. Check the POH for possible recommendations in this concern.          

 

ADDITIONAL INFORMATIONS FOR TWIN-ENGINED AIRCRAFT

Initiation to the one engine inoperative case

An engine failure in flight with a single-engined aircraft is of course a totally different story as compared to an engine failure with a twin-engined aircraft which can continue its flight until complete fuel exhaustion with only one engine operating. The possibility to be faced with a technical failure of both power plants is extremely remote ... but not impossible. Therefore, even with a twin-engined aircraft, it is advisable to do some exercises of precision landing, although this is not the main part of the training.           

 

Assuming that a twin-engined aircraft is involved, this lesson represents the core of the transition, as it is devoted to the study of the one engine inoperative case.       

 

 

a) The critical engine         

 

In the previous lesson we stressed already the fact that a yaw motion towards the "dead" engine occurs when an engine fails, and the need for closing both throttle levers if it should happen during the takeoff roll. This yaw motion is even worse if the failing power plant is the so-called critical engine.     

 

Recall that, due to the propeller effects, a clockwise rotating propeller (as seen from the cockpit) produces a tendency for the aircraft to yaw to the left (to the right for an anti-clockwise rotating propeller), and that this tendency is most marked at slow speed and high angle of attack. (See PILOT NOTE II).

 

Assuming that your aircraft is fitted with two clockwise rotating propellers, and assuming that the left engine fails, the resulting yaw motion will be stronger because the propeller effects of the right engine add to the stoppage of the left one. On the other hand, if the right engine fails, the propeller effects of the left one tend to counteract the yaw motion. In other words, the stoppage of the left engine' is likely to produce the strongest yaw, and is therefore identified as the critical engine.

 

In order to eliminate the critical engine problem, i.e. to avoid that the loss of one engine would cause a stronger yaw than the loss of the other, the system of contra-rotating propellers has been adopted on a number of light twins, for instance on the SENECA II, whereby the left propeller is rotating clockwise, and the right propeller anti-clockwise.    

 

Note that, besides the aerodynamic aspects explained here above, on some aircraft one engine can be more critical than the other because its stoppage might entail the loss of important systems, such as for instance the hydraulic pump for lowering the landing gear, nonetheless, the term "critical engine" usually refers to the previously explained propeller effects.   

 

b) Vmc           

 

When an engine failure occurs during flight, the resulting yaw motion must be counteracted by rudder input. As the rudder effectiveness decreases as the airspeed decreases (on multi-engined craft the rudder is not directly exposed to propeller slipstream, as is the case with singles), one can imagine that there is an airspeed whereby even a full rudder deflection can no longer prevent the yaw to develop. This brings us to the concept of Vmc, or Velocity Minimum Control, referred to as the minimum control speed in current language.           

 

Vmc, which is indicated by a red mark on the airspeed indicator, is the minimum airspeed at which directional control can be regained within 20° of heading change, then straight flight be maintained, assuming that the critical engine fails suddenly. Additional conditions related to the determination of Vmc are:

 

 

1°- 5 of bank angle towards the operating engine;       

2°- Maximum power on the operating engine;  

3°- Flaps in takeoff position;         

4°- Landing gear retracted;

5°- Propeller windmilling;  

6°- Most rearward centre of gravity.         

 

Be aware of one fact of paramount importance: on light twins, Vmc guarantees only straight flight, NO CLIMB!!! Be also aware that Vmc implies, amongst others, that the landing gear is retracted, and that it requires 5° of bank towards the operating engine. With an engine failure occurring at rotation or immediately after liftoff in mind, this leads us to the following conclusions:           

 

a) Rotation speed should not be lower than Vmc. Nonetheless, as we pointed out in the previous lesson, the POH of the SENECA II recommends a lower rotation speed for short field takeoff: this procedure is unsafe and should be avoided whenever possible.         

 

b) Even when rotation is initiated at Vmc, the stoppage of one engine, combined with the fact that the landing gear is not yet retracted, will cause the airspeed to drop below the Vmc value. And, on top of this, the bank angle, which is supposed to be towards the operating engine will probably initially occur to the "dead" engine (due to the secondary effect of the yaw motion).        

 

c) As far as light twins are concerned, an engine failure at the published rotation speed, or immediately after the ensuing liftoff, calls for both throttle levers to be closed IMMEDIATELY and, if the aircraft happens to be airborne, a forced landing to be carried out. Any attempt to continue the takeoff under these conditions is likely to lead to disaster.

 

d) A safer way to operate might be to accelerate to a higher speed than Vmc, for instance to Vxse (best single engine angle of climb speed, before initiating the rotation in order to ensure a better directional control. Doing so will improve the takeoff distance, but significantly increase the accelerate-stop distance.      

 

e) Even when Vyse (best single engine rate of climb speed), indicated by a blue mark on the airspeed indicator, is reached, it does not necessarily mean that the aircraft will be able to climb, particularly at maximum takeoff weight. Most light twins will, albeit at a very slow rate of climb, AND PROVIDED THAT THE MAXIMUM TAKEOFF WEIGHT IS NOT EXCEEDED (the awareness of the takeoff weight is even more important than for single­engined aircraft). Some models however will only be able to climb if the takeoff weight is considerably lower than MTOW, to such an extend that maintaining Vyse will, under certain weight conditions, give way to . . . . a minimum rate of descent.

 

 

Always keep in mind that, whereas the loss of one engine represents 50% thrust loss, the ensuing climb performance is reduced by at least 80%.

 

As the required rudder deflection increases with decreasing speed, full deflection being reached at Vmc, assuming that the wings are kept level and that the ball is centred, the heading will be maintained. However, the sideways aerodynamic force produced by the rudder causes the aircraft to sideslip towards the "dead" engine. In other words, despite the fact that the ball is centred and that the wings are level, the aircraft is sideslipping nonetheless. The results of this sideslipping are several:       

 

a) The relative wind coming from the "dead" engine side tends to counteract the rudder input, whose effectiveness is thus reduced, and gives way to an increased Vmc;

 

b) It causes an increased stalling speed and a dangerous deterioration of the general stall characteristics;

 

c) The sideways relative wind combined with, and caused by, the large rudder deflection, severely increases the total drag of the aircraft, thus calling for an increase in power required. But, as the power on the remaining engine is already at its maximum, keeping the wings level and the ball centred during single engine operation at low airspeed significantly degrades the climb performances, which are already very seriously curtailed due to the loss of the second engine.        

 

Banking the aircraft by 5° towards the operating engine gives way to a zero sideslip, despite the fact that the ball is now slightly deflected towards the operating engine side, and results in a decrease of total drag, better climb performances, and a significant lower VMC. Research in this field has shown that maintaining the wings level and the ball centred may increase Vmc by up to . . . . . 30 kts.         

 

The first part of this flight will be devoted to one or two precision landing exercises with both engines at, or at least near to, idle power.          

 

As said, the all engines out case is a rather remote event, but not unthinkable. As a matter of fact, the possibility for both engines suffering a technical failure is practically nil. Of course, if you don't pay attention to your fuel supply, anything is possible . . . . .         

 

Anyway, in the unlikely event that both engines quit, and that restarting of even only one proves impossible, do not forget to feather both propellers (see next lesson) to increase the gliding capabilities (and if the propellers are two-bladed, you might even think to feather them in horizontal position - by using the starter - to avoid further damage in case of a wheels up forced landing).          

 

During the second part of this session, once the aircraft is stabilized in normal cruise, your instructor will notify you that he will gradually reduce the critical engine (if any) to idle and caution you to maintain altitude and heading: this way you will feel the increasing necessity for opposite rudder. Note the airspeed gradually dropping and trim the rudder as required. Note also the appearance of the "beat" due to the desynchronization of the engines (in fact, this "beat" can be the very first indication of a faltering engine). Maintain heading and altitude, note the resulting airspeed with unchanged power setting on the "operating" engine: increase power as required only if the airspeed approaches Vyse. Thence:    

 

- The instructor will request you to increase to maximum power, normally high rpm and full throttle, or possibly METO power (beware of possible turbocharging), on the "operating" engine;         

 

- Open the cowl-flaps (if installed) on both engines, put the aircraft in climb, and let the airspeed stabilize at Vyse (blue mark), still maintaining the heading, readjust both the pich trim and the rudder trim, note the rate of climb, and note in particular the associated pitch attitude on the attitude indicator as well as on the external horizon. When stabilized at Vyse, apply a bank angle of ±5° to the "operating" engine, and see whether this improves the rate of climb somewhat.  

 

- Select flaps in takeoff position (note that on most light twins, this position is up, a specified deflection of the flaps being only used for short field takeoffs . . . . . which do not prevent an engine failure to occur), maintaining Vyse by slightly adjusting the pitch attitude, and note again the rate of climb, if any. Next, select the gear down and, once more, note what is left of the rate of climb . . . . . or the actual amount of descent rate.          

 

- The previous exercises will convince you that not too much climb performance, if any at all, is to be expected from a light twin with one engine failed and the propeller windmilling, certainly when the gear is down and/or the flaps are partially extended.         

 

- Retract now the gear (and flaps) and increase the pitch attitude very gradually until Vmc (red mark) : note the need to increase the rudder deflection to maximum in order to maintain the heading ¡ adjust the bank at ±5° towards the "operating" engine, and do not trim any further.     

 

- Once established at Vmc, a few additional experiments might be made: for instance, you can remove the 5° bank and centre the ball, you can select the gear down, or you can do both, even letting the aircraft bank to the dead engine (thus bringing you in a situation similar to that of an engine failure at liftoff). You will notice that, to maintain Vmc, you must lower the nose. Furthermore, that even full rudder would not prevent the aircraft to yaw towards the "dead" engine, yaw which would rapidly give way to an increasing bank . . . . . possibly even causing the aircraft to flip on its back (so be careful: do not push things too far). In fact, in order to maintain the heading in this caser the only option is to reduce power on the "operating" engine. In any caser you would get a clear demonstration of what might happen (and, alas, happened several times in the past) if you mishandle a twin following an engine failure at takeoff.     

 

Two final remarks regarding the Vmc experience:

 

1°) Vme is often very close to the stall speed: don't be surprised if, during this demonstration, the stall warning system is permanently operating; in addition, with the gear up and one throttle lever retarded, the landing gear warning will sound as well, and the combination of the two can produce quite a bit of racket: all this is normal considering the circumstances, but be prepared for it.  

 

2°) As the Vmc demonstration must be carried out at a safe altitude, it might be that, upon reaching the red mark, the rudder is still not in full deflection, thus implying that the actual Vmc is lower than the published value, even lower than the stall speed. And indeed: the published Vmc is valid at sea level under ISA conditions, where the engines are able to develop their full rated power. As altitude increases, the power available decreases (except with turbocharged engines), and so does the Vmc which, as said, might very well become lower than the stall speed. 

 

Upon return to the airport, a number of circuits will be carried out during the time remaining, possibly with a balked landing procedure.

 

 

 

This flight session includes:         

 

- one normal circuit with touch-and-go        

- one normal circuit with go-around (balked landing)       

- one circuit with flaps up landing    

- one circuit with manual extension of the landing gear  

- one circuit with full stop.      

 

Assuming a satisfactory performance, you will continue in solo. If the aircraft is fitted with additional systems which are new to you for instance a sophisticated autopilot, additional training is strongly recommended with regard to their proper use. This additional training can be performed as PICUS.   

TWIN ENGINE TRAINING 

 

 

As you have been introduced to the one engine out situation during the previous lesson, this session will be devoted to further engine failure exercises with feathering and unfeathering of the "failed" engine.         

 

A propeller is said to be feathered when its pitch angle reaches 90°, i.e. that its blades are aligned with the airflow. When in this position, the forces acting on the blades are practically nil and the propeller stops rotating altogether.   

 

Recall that the feathering position offers two important advantages: firstly, in case of engine problem, the power plant can be shutdown, even by way of prevention, and will not be submitted to further damage due to windmilling with zero oil pressure, secondly, a propeller in feathered position causes very little drag as compared to a windmilling one, and affects the aircraft's performances to a much lesser degree.           

 

Also recall that the propeller's constant speed system is different on twins, as compared to (most) single-engined aircraft. Although on both aircraft types, the variable pitch mechanism is usually controlled by the normal engine oil system, the loss of oil pressure on twins causes the propeller to move towards high pitch/low rpm, whereas on single-engined aircraft the propeller usually moves to low pitch/high rpm. On twins, the only device which opposes the propeller to move to the complete feathered position is a centrifugal lock which moves into position at around 800 rpm, unless prevented to do so by selecting the propeller lever to the "FEATHER" position. 

 

When an engine falters during flight, you should initially take the proper corrective action to correct the situation (particularly by verifying the fuel feeding system). If the cause of the problem cannot be traced at once, the engine must be shut down. The actions required to this purpose are to be taken by rote, as rapidly as possible, but without undue haste (which is the best way to do the wrong thing). However, once the engine has been shut down and feathered, and that you have the aircraft properly under control, the" engine failure and shutdown" checklist should be READ to ensure that all necessary steps have been carried out.        

 

Always remember that when an engine becomes definitively inoperative during flight, the subsequent landing involves a single engine landing, as well as a single engine go-around procedure. Both these procedures must be reviewed before initiating the approach! Furthermore, confirm to the ATC (Tower) that you are conducting an engine out landing: your approach path will be cleared from any other traffic and you will be given full priority for landing.    

 

In the real world, considering that engine failures in flight are not an everyday occurrence and that it may have been some time since you practiced an engine out landing, although it should offer no major problem it is recommended to request "assistance for landing", hereby meaning that the fire brigade and ambulance services are standing by to intervene without delay . . . . . one never knows!

 

Let us now analyze the three situations during which an engine failure might occur:     

 

1°) During cruise flight      

 

Assuming that the aircraft is in cruise flight, an engine failure on a twin- or multi-engined aircraft is by no means a life endangering threat, provided that it is handled correctly. The following should be kept in mind: 

 

a) If the cruising altitude is well within the single engine ceiling, simply maintain cruise power on the operative engine, feather the propeller of the failed one, continue flying at reduced speed and perform the "engine failure and shut down" checklist. If you are in controlled area, inform the ATC of the problem. Relax! There is no reason that the operative engine should fail: you are flying a single-engined aircraft now, that's all there is to it. However, safetywise, divert to the nearest suitable airport.

 

b) If the cruising altitude is higher than the single engine ceiling, act as in (a) above. However, no attempt should be made to maintain this altitude: let the airspeed decrease until the blue line (Vyse being very close to the best rate of descent speed) f at which moment a descent should be initiated to maintain this speed; level off when you are well within the single engine ceiling limitation. If in a controlled area, think about notifying the ATC about your descent, particularly under IMC: this is a typical example for using the PAN-PAN-PAN message.        

 

c) The major point is to correctly identify which engine is failing. This is not always evident, as the faltering one might successively fail, fire, fail again, etc., causing    

the aircraft to yaw to one side, then to the other. This is a situation in which one can easily mistake the good engine for the failing one and shut down the wrong powerplant: check the instruments, if necessary crosscheck and recrosscheck them, until you are absolutely sure which one is at fault. In the meantime, and this cannot be stressed enough, CONTINUE FLYING THE AIRCRAFT AS STEADILY AS POSSIBLE!!! Don't let your attention be drawn away from this primary task!!! Try to find the origin of the problem and correct it if possible. And again, if you are higher than the single engine ceiling capability, don't ever let the speed drop below the blue line trying to maintain your altitude:  START DESCENT!!

 

d) If unable to correct the reason of the problem, and assuming that you did not positively identified the failing engine in the meantime, it will ultimately quit completely, leaving the propeller windmilling: this will be indicated by a definite yaw towards the "dead" engine and require a definite opposite rudder input and associated rudder trim to maintain directional control. 

 

e) Never rush feathering a engine! Keep in mind the saying "DEAD FOOT/DEAD ENGINE": feather the engine on the side OPPOSITE to that requiring rudder input! However, as an additional safety, first reduce the throttle of the failed engine to idle: only then, proceed with further feathering and shutdown. Again, don't rush things, VERIFY EVERYTHING TWICE!!! It might very easily happen that one engine fails, that it is correctly identified and confirmed by selecting the associated throttle lever to idle ... only to feather the other engine or, having feathered the correct power plant, select the wrong mixture control to ICO, or to switch off the wrong magneto set. Be extremely careful: those various levers and switches are dangerously close to each other!!  

 

Note: Some instructors recommend to select the levers of both engines to full power before feathering the failing one. This is not really necessary (unless, for some reason, the airspeed would drop dangerously low): on the contrary, as long as the failure occurs in level flight (or in descent), this procedure amounts to needlessly impose a high load on the remaining power plant. A speed decrease is absolutely normal as a logic result of the thrust loss, but it will usually stabilize at a lower, but still safe value ... unless the failure occurs above the single engine ceiling (see (b) above). However, the need to use full power (in fact METO power) on the remaining engine might be required when flying over extensive mountainous terrain extending up to or exceeding the aircraft's single engine ceiling, in order to slow the speed decrease to the blue line value as much as possible before the descent must be initiated, still keeping the remaining engine at METO power, to obtain the minimum possible rate of descent until all obstacles are cleared.     

 

f) Finally be aware that, during single engine flight, you will have to use the fuel crossfeed system in order to balance the fuel contents in both wing tanks.      

 

2°) During climb     

 

Assuming that the aircraft is in climb when the engine failure occurs, if altitude permits, simply level off, let the airspeed increase to an acceptable value and proceed as for cruise flight (see 1°a above), or immediately initiate the descent if it happens above the single engine ceiling capability. If, for some reason, the climb should be continued (and be possible), and assuming that the power has been previously reduced to a "normal climb" setting, then the application of METO power becomes of course imperative: in this case, advance both throttle levers maintaining the speed either at Vyse, or possibly reducing it to Vxse (best single engine angle of climb speed). Identify and feather the failing engine (unless, of course, you can correct the situation immediately).

 

3°) During descent

 

Assuming that the aircraft is in descent from one altitude to another when the engine failure occurs, no major problem here: advance both throttle levers to cruise power, level off and proceed as per 1° a above. When everything is under control, resume the descent.         

 

If it happens while the aircraft is descending on short final with gear down and flaps full down, immediately apply full power on both engines, possibly disregarding the METO limitation if any, and retract the flaps initially to approach configuration; WATCH THE AIRSPEED!! If necessary, retract the landing gear and perform a wheels up landing (it is better to land wheels up within the airport's boundary than touching down on the wheels outside). Do not retract the flaps fully, unless the airspeed allows it! In this case, it is a matter of getting the aircraft safely on the ground, everything else may be disregarded. 

 

4°) During takeoff phase   

 

This is by far the most critical situation because it calls for instantaneous reaction on the part of the pilot. The subject has already been discussed previously. In fact, as long as the airspeed has not reached the blue line (or at least Vxse), the light twin offers no real advantage as compared to a single­engined aircraft. On the contrary, the existence of the remaining engine turning at full power with too Iowan airspeed dangerously compounds the problem: once again, CLOSE BOTH THROTTLE LEVERS AT ONCE. EASE THE NOSE DOWN. AND LAND STRAIGHT AHEAD!!! Considering this possibility, as with a single-engined aircraft, ALWAYS USE THE MAXIMUM RUNWAY LENGTH AVAILABLE!     

 

If the engine failure occurs shortly after takeoff, but that the aircraft has reached a safe speed, and that you KNOW that an acceptable rate of climb may be expected (check the aircraft's weight and associated performances before each takeoff), act as follows:

 

- Maintain full power;         

 

- Apply full, or near full rudder, to maintain directional control, and correct immediately any undesired bank;      

 

- Ensure that the pitch attitude is acceptable;

 

- Select the gear lever to UP (see note below);

 

- Retract the flaps when airspeed allows it;

 

- Identify the failing engine, then apply ± 5° of bank to the operative engine;

 

- As in this case the maximum possible climb performance is probably required, once properly identified feather the failing engine immediately, even with the associated throttle lever at full power but again, don't rush this: MAKE SURE THAT YOU DO NOT FEATHER THE OPERATIVE ENGINE!!!

 

- Talking about the climb performances with one engine inoperative, and particularly as long as the propeller is not feathered, don't expect much more than 100 to 200 ft/min. In other words, you will need 5 minutes AT BEST, to reach 1000 ft AGL . . . . . and 10 minutes at worse.        

 

- Level off as soon as the altitude and surrounding obstacles permit, notify the ATC and stay into the circuit pattern while performing the engine failure checklist followed by the after takeoff checklist. If in IMC, proceed towards the IAF for the landing runway in use, where you can enter the holding pattern in order to complete all these proceedings safely. Although the MHA is probably 2000 or 3000 ft AGL, this altitude may be disregarded (unless it is dictated by obstacle requirements).  

 

- In any case, investigate whether or not an engine restart might be possible. If no restart is possible, prepare for a single engine landing, perform the associated checklist and return to the airport. In IMC leave the holding pattern for approach only once you are fully prepared: NEVER RUSH THINGS TAKE YOUR TIME!!

Note: Study carefully the POH, and check the recommended procedure. On some aircraft, retracting the landing gear causes gear doors to open and to produce such a drag that no climb capability at all is left available.        

 

During the takeoff roll, you MUST maintain your hand on the throttle levers in order to close them INSTANTANEOUSLY in case of a faltering engine. This is true for any multi-engined aircraft. 

 

On piston engine driven types which guarantee an adequate climb gradient with one engine out, the hand MUST be removed from the throttle levers when reaching a so-called critical speed, known as Vl, and the takeoff roll MUST be continued until a so-called safety speed, known as V2, at which the rotation is initiated: V2 should then be maintained during the initial stages of the climb phase. THIS METHOD IS NOT. APPLICABLE TO LIGHT TWINS!!! As we mentioned it already before, light twins DO NOT GUARANTEE CLIMB PERFORMANCE WITH ONE ENGINE INOPERATIVE. Therefore, the procedure to be used in case of engine failure shortly after rotation is rather similar to the single-engined aircraft case: use the maximum possible runway length and delay the landing gear retraction until it becomes obvious that an emergency landing back on the runway is no longer possible. You should keep your hand on the throttle levers as long as no safe altitude is reached in order, once again, to reduce INSTANTANEOUSLY power to idle on BOTH engines and land straight ahead, unless you are absolutely sure that the conditions are such that a climb at an acceptable rate is feasible.         

 

Engine failures are a very rare occurrence, and the possibility to be faced with one during takeoff is extremely remote. Nonetheless you must be prepared to cope with it. Having received an adequate initial training on a light twin is a basic requirement. Undergoing recurrent training, particularly regarding the engine out procedures, is imperative (a check ride with an instructor at least every six months is strongly recommended).

 

The problem with situations such as engine failures, especially during the takeoff phase, is that they are so uncommon: maybe once in a pilot's flying career, mostly never. As human beings, pilots tend to forget about it altogether . . . . . until the day they are suddenly faced with such an occurrence: if they are caught unawares, particularly in the case of an engine failure at takeoff, the situation degrades so rapidly that they are unable to take the correct actions fast enough....... which invariably leads to disastrous results.   

 

Once more, before each takeoff, whether in a single or in a twin­engined aircraft, BE PREPARED FOR THE UNEXPECTED!!! As far as light twins are concerned, do as airline pilots do: fill in a takeoff data card (see example hereafter) to ensure that you are within limits. Also, besides the passenger briefing, perform an appropriate self/crew-briefing, for instance:          

 

"Underload is . . . . kgs. Rotation speed . . . . kts. Expected single engine rate of climb ...

"ft/min. In case of engine failure before, at or immediately after rotation, both throttles "closed, nose down, landing straight ahead. In case of engine failure during initial climb "at or above blue line, and expected rate of climb is acceptable, full power on both "engines, rudder as required, maintaining or reducing to blue line speed, gear up, flaps "up, identify failing engine, bank 5° to dead engine and feather".        

 

This flight session will be devoted to further engine out training. As from now, before each takeoff, you will be requested to fill in the takeoff data card and to perform the self/crew briefing.       

 

Once at cruising altitude, your instructor will abruptly reduce alternatively the right or the left engine to idle to acquaint you more with the ensuing yaw motion and its physical feel. You must simply try to maintain the altitude and/or to recover the initial heading.     

 

 

After a few such exercises, you will be requested to completely shut down one engine with actual feathering, while maintaining heading and altitude. This is in fact what you should do in case of a precautionary shutdown, assuming that you detected some kind of malfunction (for instance a gradual loss of oil pressure together with an increase of oil temperature). You will perform the full shutdown procedure in accordance with the associated checklist.         

 

The instructor will request you to perform a variety of manoeuvres with the engine feathered: turns to the left and to the right, possibly while climbing and descending. Also the use of the fuel crossfeed shall be demonstrated.          

 

You will then be requested to unfeather the engine in accordance with the associated checklist, maintaining a specified heading and altitude (or while staying within a holding pattern).

 

After adequate warm-up of the unfeathered engine, normal cruise power will be resumed. The feathering and unfeathering exercise with associated turns, climb and descent will be repeated on the other engine.           

 

At least one exercise will involve a go-around (at altitude) from single engine final approach configuration with the critical engine feathered. Note that the single engine go-around is to be considered with no or partial flaps only. As far as actual conditions are concerned, this manoeuvre is to be avoided whenever possible. This is why, particularly on light twins, an actual engine out approach must be notified to the ATC (Tower). Under actual conditions, assuming that unfavourable weather prevails (such as gusty winds or low ceilings), a diversion to a more suitable airport should be considered.  

 

Upon returning to the airport, the instructor will induce at least one actual engine stoppage (by turning off the fuel which will be considered as a failure of the engine itself). You will identify the engine, feather it, complete the full shutdown procedure, and perform a single engine approach and landing in accordance with the associated checklist.        

 

TAKEOFF DATA (Example for Piper PA-34-200T SENECA V)

 

AIRPORT __________ ELEV __________ QNH __________

PR. ALT __________ OAT __________

EXPECTED ENGINE OUT RATE OF CLIMB _____ FT/MIN

 

Note: Divide total moment by weight to find CG. Refer to graph in POH	WEIGHT LBS	ARM IN	MOMENT IN-LBS
BASIC WEIGHT
FRONT OCCUPANTS		85.5
CENTER PAX FWD FACING		118.1
CENTER PAX AFT FACING		119.1
REAR PAX		157.6
JUMP SEAT PAX		118.1
FWD BAGG - MAX. 100 LBS		22.5
AFT BAGG - MAX. 85 LBS		178.7
FUEL		93.6
RAMP WEIGHT - MAX. 4430 LBS
START, TAXI, RUN-UP	- 23	93.6	- 2153
TAKEOFF WEIGHT - MAX. 4407 LBS

 

ASD FOR PAVED, DRY, LEVEL RUNWAY: __________ m.

TOD FOR PAVED, DRY, LEVEL RUNWAY: __________ m.

RUNWAY LENGTH AVAILABLE __________ FT: SHOULD AT LEAST BE EQUAL TO THE LONGEST OF ASD AND TOD, POSSIBLY CORRECTED AS FOLLOWS:

-       DRY GRASS:                                                     x BY 1,3: __________ m.

-       WET RUNWAY (PAVED OR GRASS):                      x BY 1,4: __________ m.

-       UP SLOPE:                                                        x BY 1,1: __________ m.

 

(Note: According to British CAA, end results should be multiplied by 1,33 for unfactored data: ASD __________ m. TOD __________ m.)

 

 

During this flight, considered as a progress test before the official examination by the BCAA, the instructor will only simulate or induce failures: he will NOT provide you with any help in decision making. Show your common sense!

 

This session will commence with an engine failure shortly after takeoff with the aircraft established in normal climb. The engine failure will be simulated by the instructor who will abruptly reduce one throttle lever to idle. You must react accordingly to maintain or recover the runway heading, and continue to climb to normal circuit altitude at not less than Vyse. You will call out your various moves, including the execution of the engine failure checklist, putting your hand on the various levers and switches, but without activating them (the engine will remain in idle all the time).

 

You will perform the single engine approach in accordance with the associate checklist. Do not initiate the final approach before you are fully ready for it: never hesitate to inform the ATC and to request one more circuit if necessary.

 

When established in final, in single engine landing configuration, you will be ordered to go-around. Do not forget the after takeoff checklist. Verify the fuel balance. 

 

Following the satisfactory execution of the go-around, the instructor will give you back the "failed" engine.         

 

You will now perform an "all engines" circuit and approach, with the flaps assumed to be blocked in up position. Think about the corrected approach speed. Upon selection of the landing gear in down position, it will fail to extend: the rest is up to you!        

 

After touch-and-go: normal circuit with full flaps approach followed with go-around just before touchdown (balked landing simulation).

 

Actual critical engine failure induced by the instructor during the final stage of the climb or at circuit altitude: you will now actually feather and complete the associated checklist while remaining in the circuit. Be aware that if an engine failure occurs in level flight AT LOW SPEED, such as when within the circuit. this is also a reason to initially advance BOTH throttle levers to METO, in order to maintain the speed. Once the airspeed  is under control, proceed with the feathering and shutdown procedure      

 

Still within the circuit (see note), re-start the engine according to the checklist.     

 

Still within the circuit, once both engines are again operating normally, the instructor will induce a failure on the other engine: you will again go through the full procedure for actual feathering as before, thence proceed for a full stop landing with engine feathered.           

 

Note: Assuming that staying in the circuit poses safety problems because of other traffic, the instructor may give you a heading to leave the circuit. Alternatively, assuming that you are qualified for IFR or seeking an IR(A) qualification on a twin, you should proceed to the nearest holding pattern (preferably climbing to the minimum holding altitude if possible) where further unfeathering and feathering exercises will be carried out, then performing the instrument approach and full stop landing with one engine feathered.        

 

Assuming that your performances where satisfactory during this session, you will be authorized to pass the official BCAA multi­engine test flight. As said earlier, assuming that the aircraft is fitted with additional systems which are new to you, for instance a sophisticated autopilot, additional training is strongly recommended with regard to their proper use. You can perform this additional training as PICUS, provided that you successfully passed the BCAA test.